GIFT  OF 


MATERIALS  AND  METHODS   IN 
HIGH    SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO  •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


MATERIALS  AND 

METHODS  IN  HIGH  SCHOOL 

AGRICULTURE- 


BY 


WILLIAM   GRANVILLE   HUMMEL,  M.S. 

¥ 

ASSISTANT   PROFESSOR   OF    AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION 
UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 

AND 

BERTHA  ROYCE   HUMMEL,  B.L.S. 


gork 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1913 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1913, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  July,  1913. 


Xortoooti 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

MUCH  is  being  said  and  written  in  these  days  as  to 
agricultural  education.  It  is  being  conceded  that  we 
need  and  must  have  more  agricultural  and  other  voca- 
tional instruction  in  our  public  schools.  The  Uni- 
versities provide  higher  instruction  in  agriculture  in 
admirable  ways.  Fairly  satisfactory  outlines  and  teach- 
ing methods  have  been  worked  out  for  agricultural 
instruction  in  the  elementary  schools.  In  the  sec- 
ondary schools,  however,  agricultural  teaching  is  in  a 
very  chaotic  condition. 

High  schools  located  in  agricultural  communities  or 
in  towns  or  cities  depending  largely  upon  agriculture 
for  their  prosperity  should  provide  agricultural  courses. 
As  to  the  number  or  nature  of  these  courses  there  is 
little  agreement.  Ideas  regarding  the  proper  mate- 
rials and  methods  to  be  employed  in  teaching  agricul- 
ture in  the  high  school  lack  clearness,  definiteness, 
and  pedagogical  foundation. 

The  average  university  trained  agriculturalist,  going 
out  to  teach,  has  little  understanding  of  the  exact  na- 
ture of  the  agricultural  work  which  should  be  given 
in  the  high  school,  or  as  to  methods  of  presenting 


VI  PREFACE 

it.  The  pure  science  man,  to  whom  the  agricultural 
teaching  is  frequently  delegated,  has  still  less. 

This  book  has  been  prepared  to  meet  the  needs  of 
persons  interested  in  the  introduction  or  in  the  teach- 
ing of  agriculture  in  high  schools  of  towns,  cities,  or 
rural  communities  where  large  numbers  of  students 
are  drawn  from  the  farming  population,  or  where  the 
prosperity  of  the  high  '  school  community  is  largely 
dependent  upon  agriculture. 

It  is  the  result  of  the  experience  of  one  of  the 
authors  in  teaching  agriculture  in  such  high  schools, 
and  of  extended  observation  and  comparison  of  high 
school  agricultural  courses  and  methods  by  both  au- 
thors. Numbers  of  schools  have  been  personally  vis- 
ited, and  correspondence  has  been  carried  on  with 
many  others. 

The  purpose  of  the  book  is  to  outline  the  agricul- 
tural course,  as  a  whole,  for  high  schools  of  the  type 
mentioned,  and  to  give  helpful  suggestions  as  to  the 
selection  of  suitable  materials,  teaching  methods,  and 
equipment  for  the  various  subjects  of  the  course. 

The  materials  and  methods  outlined  have  been,  for 
the  most  part,  personally  used  and  tested  by  W.  G. 
Hummel  in  his  work  in  the  high  school.  The  gather- 
ing of  part  of  the  material  and  the  preparation  of 
much  of  the  manuscript  has  been  the  work  of  B.  R. 
Hummel.  The  chapters  of  the  book,  written  after 
experience  and  careful  investigation  and  study,  have 


PREFACE  Vil 

been  used  and  revised  in  connection  with  the  teach- 
ing of  university  classes  in  high  school  agricultural 
methods.  The  practicums  and  references  for  collat- 
eral reading  following  each  chapter  were  prepared 
especially  for  such  classes. 

The  thanks  of  the  authors  are  due  to  Professor 
Maurice  A.  Bigelow,  Professor  of  Biology  in  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  for  reading  of  the  manu- 
script and  helpful  criticisms  and  suggestions ;  and  to 
Professors  E.  B.  Babcock  and  Alexis  F.  Lange,  of  the 
University  of  California,  for  reading  of  part  of  the 
manuscript  and  for  helpful  criticism. 

W.  G.  H. 

B.  R.  H. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PREFACE  v 


CHAPTER  I 

AGRICULTURE   IN  THE  HIGH   SCHOOL:  WHAT  IT  is,  AND 

SOMETHING  OF  ITS  HISTORY  i 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  REASONS  FOR  INTRODUCING  AGRICULTURE  IN  HIGH 

SCHOOLS 12 

CHAPTER   III 

THE  PLACE  OF  AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  CUR- 
RICULUM       32 

CHAPTER  IV 
TEACHING  METHODS  TO  BE  EMPLOYED        .       .  65 

CHAPTER  V 
EQUIPMENT 88 

CHAPTER  VI 

THE  FIRST  YEAR  AGRICULTURAL  WORK     .        .        .        .108 

ix 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   VII 

THE  HIGH  SCHOC 
LIVESTOCK  COURSE 155 


PACK 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  :  THE  GENERAL 


CHAPTER  VIII 
DAIRY  WORK  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 184 

CHAPTER   IX 
THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  POULTRY  COURSE 205 

CHAPTER  X 
HORTICULTURE 226 

CHAPTER  XI 

FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE 262 

Farm  Mechanics  and  Farm  Buildings. 
Farm  Management. 

CHAPTER  XII 
THE  SCHOOL  FARM 312 

CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHER     .        .       .     353 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Practical  Work  in  Budding,  University  Farm  School,  Davis 

(Cal.) Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Exhibit  of  Garden  Products  of  Class  in  Beginning  Agriculture, 

Oxnard  (Cal.)  High  School     ....          facing    17  • 
School  Garden,  Gardena  (Cal.)  High  School  ..."      108 
Three  Systems  of  Irrigation  illustrated  in   the   School 

Garden,  Hanford  (Cal.)  High  School  .  .  .  "  145 
Busy  Bees  at  the  Brawley  (Cal.)  High  School  .  .  «  155 
Studying  the  Dairy  Cow,  Fresno  (Cal.)  High  School  .  "  184 
At  Work  in  the  Dairy  Laboratory,  Fresno  (Cal.)  High 

School "195 

Studying  Trees  before   Pruning,  Hanford  (Cal.)   High 

School "229 

At  Work  in  the  Greenhouse,  Oxnard  (Cal.)  High  School  "  242 
Interior  of  Lath-house,  Gardena  (Cal.)  High  School  .  "  244 
Studying  the  Gasoline  Engine,  La  Crosse  County  School 

of  Agriculture,  Onalaska  (Wis.)  "      274 

Making  a  Miniature  Farm  Building,  La  Crosse  County 

School  of  Agriculture,  Onalaska  (Wis.)  ..."  284 
Practical  Work  in  Building,  Hollywood  (Cal.)  High  School  "  284 
Irrigation  Well  on  the  School  Farm,  Oxnard  (Cal.)  High 

School "290 

Plan  of  Ten  Acre  High  School  Farm,  Bemidji  (Minn.)  .  .  328 
Plan  of  the  High  School  Farm,  Oxnard  (Cal.)  .  .  .338 
Plan  of  the  High  School  Farm,  Gardena  (Cal.),  South  Section  340 
Plan  of  the  High  School  Farm,  Gardena  (Cal.),  Middle  Section  342 
Plan  of  the  High  School  Farm,  Gardena  (Cal.),  North  Section  344 
Plan  of  the  High  School  Farm,  Bakersfield  (Cal.)  .  .  .  346 
Plan  of  School  Grounds,  showing  Miniatures  of  Farms  in  the 

Neighborhood 348 

Miniature  Farms  on  the  School  Grounds          ....     350 


MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN  HIGH 
SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

CHAPTER  I 

AGRICULTURE    IN    THE    HIGH    SCHOOL  I  WHAT    IT    IS    AND 
SOMETHING   OF   ITS  HISTORY 

BEFORE  entering  upon  a  discussion  of  methods  of  teach- 
ing agriculture  in  the  high  school,  we  should  have  a  defi- 
nite understanding  as  to  the  scope  and  purpose  of  high 
school  instruction  in  agriculture  and  we  should  know 
something  of  its  history. 

The  object  of  agricultural  work  in  the  elementary 
schools  is,  it  is  agreed,  to  give  correct  ideas  of  environ- 
mental materials;  "to  get  a  wide,  intelligent,  and  sym- 
pathetic acquaintance  with  the  more  evident  things  of 
nature  and  man's  relation  to  them." 1  It  is  not  the  pur-' 
pose  of  agricultural  work  in  the  elementary  schools  to 
make  farmers;  but  to  open  the  minds  of  children  to 
the  common  phenomena  of  nature,  to  inculcate  habits 
of  observation,  and  to  generate  in  children  high  ideals 
of  country  life.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  work  to 
awaken  and  cultivate  an  interest  in  and  respect  for 
industry  in  general  and  for  the  life  and  work  of  the 
farm  in  particular.  It  should  "cultivate  the  active 
and  creative  instincts  as  distinct  from  the  reflective 
1  Bricker,  G.  A.,  "Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  High  School,"  p.  3. 

B  I 


M  \MKi.vl.S    A\0    MFTHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

and  receptive,"  1  which  have  hitherto  been  almost  exclu- 
sively exercised  in  our  schools.  There  should  be  given, 
in  the  lower  grades,  such  an  experience  with  and  knowl- 
edge of  the  more  common  things  relating  to  plants, 
animals,  soils,  etc.,  as  will  form  a  practical  working 
basis  for  future  instruction  in  more  specific  studies 
in  agriculture  proper  when  the  child  reaches  the  upper 
grades  and  the  high  school.  Throughout  the  elementary 
school  the  work  should  give  practice  in  failure  and 
success,  thus  putting  to  the  test  early  in  life  the  ability 
to  do  definite  things ;  it  should  connect  the  school  work 
with  real  life  and  thus  make  the  value  and  need  of  school- 
ing more  apparent. 

Agriculture  in  the  elementary  schools  has  been  well 
defined  as  nature-study  with  an  economic  significance. 
It  is  nature-study  which  emphasizes  utility  and  stimu- 
lates industry. 

The  work  of  the  colleges  has  heretofore  included  much 
agricultural  instruction  properly  of  secondary  rather 
than  of  college  grade.  The  true  province  of  the  work 
in  these  higher  institutions  lies  in  the  investigation  and 
study  of  the  more  fundamental  problems  of  agricultural 
science  and  practice.  It  should  emphasize  experimental 
and  research  work  and  the  study  of  agricultural  theory. 
When,  as  seems  inevitable  sooner  or  later,  the  high 
schools  take  up  everywhere  those  phases  of  agricultural 
1  Davenport,  E.,  "Illinois  Course  in  Agriculture." 


WHAT   IT   IS   AND    SOMETHING   OF    ITS   HISTORY          3 

teaching  adapted  to  them,  the  universities  and  colleges 
will  be  enabled  to  drop  many  of  the  more  elementary 
courses  which  they  are  now  giving  and  to  concentrate 
on  more  advanced  work. 

The  work  of  the  secondary  schools,  as  is  evident,  lies 
between  that  of  the  colleges  and  the  elementary  schools. 
Its  purpose  differs  from  that  of  either  of  these.  High 
school  agriculture  should  be  practical  agriculture,  educat- 
ing students  for  the  business  of  farming.  And  yet  it 
should  not  be  narrowly  vocational,  but  should  be  cultural 
and  disciplinary  as  well.  It  should  not  only  prepare 
students  to  be  good  farmers,  but  should  fit  them  for  life 
as  broad-minded,  intelligent,  progressive  citizens.  The 
agricultural  instruction  given  should  include  the  scientific 
principles  underlying  the  farming  industry,  the  observa- 
tion of  agricultural  methods  and  results  in  fields, 
orchards,  flocks,  and  herds,  and  experiment  and  practice 
in  the  laboratory  and  on  the  school  agricultural  grounds. 

In  the  general  high  school  the  work  will  of  course  be 
less  comprehensive  than  in  the  technical  high  schools, 
special  private  secondary  schools,  etc. ;  but  it  should 
in  all  cases  be  practical,  usable  agriculture,  giving  a 
thorough  grounding  in  the  elementary  principles  of 
agriculture,  with  practical  laboratory  and  field  work. 
In  addition,  it  is  desirable  that  the  courses  in  agriculture 
be  so  organized  as  to  form  a  natural  and  proper  prepara- 
tion for  entrance  to  the  agricultural  colleges. 


4  MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

The  graduate  of  the  high  school  agricultural  course 
should  understand  the  rational  and  scientific  basis  of 
modern  agriculture  and  should  appreciate  its  needs. 
He  should  be  able  and  alert  to  profit  by  the  results  of 
experiment  station  and  government  investigational 
work  so  far  as  it  relates  to  his  own  problems;  and 
he  should  be  fitted  to  judge  and  to  select  from  agri- 
cultural information,  however  offered,  whether  by  other 
farmers,  by  books,  bulletins,  or  periodicals,  whatever 
will  be  useful  and  profitable  to  him.  If  he  is  to  engage 
in  farming  immediately  after  completing  his  high  school 
course,  he  should  take  to  his  work  from  the  school,  to- 
gether with  valuable  information,  an  appreciation  of  the 
dignity  of  his  work,  of  its  possibilities,  and  of  its  prob- 
lems. If  he  goes  on  to  the  more  advanced  work  of 
the  college,  he  should  take  with  him  a  knowledge  of 
elementary  facts  and  principles  and  an  eagerness  for 
study  and  investigation  of  the  many  problems  which 
he  knows  are  forcing  themselves  upon  the  attention  of 
those  interested  in  agriculture. 

Having  indicated  the  function  of  agriculture  in  the 
high  school,  we  may  review  its  history  briefly.  It  is, 
however,  a  difficult  matter  to  bring  the  history  of  agri- 
cultural teaching  in  high  schools  up  to  date,  —  to  keep 
pace  with  the  spread  of  the  movement  for  secondary 
instruction  in  this  country.  Even  the  experts  in  agri- 
cultural education  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 


WHAT    IT    IS    AND    SOMETHING   OF    ITS   HISTORY          5 

at  Washington,  with  their  special  facilities  for  gathering 
information,  confess  their  inability  to  keep  a  complete 
record  of  progress. 

The  first  successful  agricultural  high  school  was  es- 
tablished in  connection  with  the  College  of  Agriculture 
of  the  University  of  Minnesota  in  1888,  —  twenty-five 
years  ago.  Agricultural  secondary  schools  are  now  con- 
nected with  agricultural  colleges  of  nearly  forty  states. 
According  to  the  latest  available  statistics,1  over  eighty 
distinctly  agricultural  high  schools  of  different  types 
have  been  established  since  1888.  Almost  all  of  these 
are  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  state  funds.  In 
addition,  at  least  289  public  high  schools  are  receiving 
state  aid  for  agriculture,  and  over  1600  unsubsidized 
public  and  private  high  schools  and  academies  are 
giving  instruction  in  agriculture.  Among  other  second- 
ary institutions  giving  instruction  in  agriculture  are 
a  considerable  number  of  privately  endowed  schools; 
and  nearly  200  state  and  county  normal  schools  are  un- 
dertaking to  prepare  young  people  to  teach  agriculture. 

Of  the  separate  agricultural  high  schools  receiving 
state  aid,  there  are  several  types,  chief  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  congressional  district  agricultural 
high  schools  and  the  country  agricultural  high  schools. 
Alabama  was  the  first  state  to  establish  an  agricultural 

1  "  Experiment  Station  Record,"  March,  1912.  Editorial.  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations  Cir.  106,  rev.  Oct.,  1912. 


6  MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

school  in  each  congressional  district.  Georgia  followed 
in  1906.  In  1908  Virginia  provided  an  appropriation 
of  $25,000  for  instruction  in  agriculture  and  other  indus- 
trial subjects  in  one  high  school  of  each  congressional 
district.  In  1909  Arkansas  provided  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  agricultural  school  in  each  of  the  four 
educational  districts  of  that  state;  and  in  Oklahoma, 
at  an  earlier  date,  an  agricultural  high  school  was  pro- 
vided for  in  each  judicial  district. 

County  agricultural  high  schools  are  now  in  operation 
in  a  number  of  states.  They  were  first  established 
in  Wisconsin,  in  1902.  In  that  state  the  schools  are 
equipped  at  the  expense  of  the  counties  where  they  are 
located,  but  they  receive  $4000  per  year  to  aid  in  paying 
running  expenses.  The  Marathon  and  the  Dunn  county 
schools  were  the  first  established  and  have  achieved 
national  reputations.  During  the  past  few  years  other 
schools  having  similar  courses  have  been  established  in 
other  Wisconsin  counties.  In  1905  Minnesota  passed 
an  act  providing  for  local  option  in  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  county  high  schools  of  agriculture 
and  domestic  science,  and  in  1907  Michigan  passed  a  like 
law.  In  Mississippi  a  law  was  passed  in  1908  for  the 
establishment  of  county  agricultural  high  schools,  with 
state  aid  of  $1000  annually.  In  Michigan  county  agri- 
cultural high  schools  were  authorized  in  1907.  Other 
states  have  quickly  followed,  and  the  establishment  of 


WHAT   IT    IS   AND   SOMETHING   OF   ITS  HISTORY          7 

county  agricultural  high  schools  is  now  authorized  in 
at  least  twenty- three  states. 

Besides  the  county  and  congressional  district  high 
schools  in  the  various  states  there  are,  in  certain  states, 
special  separate  agricultural  schools  of  secondary  grade, 
wholly  or  in  part  state  supported.  The  California 
Polytechnic  School  at  San  Luis  Obispo  is  an  example  of 
these.  The  New  York  State  schools  at  Canton  and 
Morrisville,  the  Massachusetts  school  at  Petersham 
and  the  Smith  agricultural  school  at  Northampton, 
and  others  in  various  states,  are  similar,  though  not  all 
offering  work  of  like  grade. 

Special  provision  is  made  in  various  states,  notably 
Minnesota,  for  the  introduction  and  support  of  agri- 
culture in  consolidated  rural  or  township  schools;  and 
in  certain  states  provision  is  made  whereby  state  aid 
is  given  to  all  existing  public  high  schools  introducing 
agriculture.  There  are  also  many  private  schools  of 
secondary  grade  giving  instruction  in  agriculture,  as 
the  Mount  Hermon  school,  at  Northfield,  Mass.,  the 
Winona  agricultural  college,  at  Winona  Lake,  Ind., 
and  others.  Besides  these,  the  normal  schools  all  over 
the  country  are  introducing  agricultural  work,  and 
practically  all  the  Indian  and  Negro  schools  of  secondary 
rank  give  agricultural  courses. 

Lastly,  there  are  the  many  ordinary  high  schools  of 
the  country  not  receiving  state  aid,  but  which  have  in- 


8  MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

troduced  agriculture  into  their  curricula,  supported  by 
their  communities.  These  are  rapidly  increasing  in 
number,  and  excellent  work  is  being  done  in  many  of 
them. 

In  the  majority  of  these  locally  supported  high  schools, 
and  in  all  partly  or  entirely  state  supported  high  schools, 
agriculture  is  taught  as  a  separate  subject.  In  a  consid- 
erable number  of  high  schools,  however,  agriculture 
is  taught  only  incidentally,  in  connection  with  the  other 
sciences.  In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  smaller  high  schools  lead  in  teaching  agriculture  as 
a  separate  subject,  presumably  because  located  in  close 
connection  with  agricultural  communities.  In  the  very 
large  high  schools  where  agriculture  is  taught,  it  is 
frequently  only  as  applied  science. 

Some  of  the  great  state  universities  are  urging  the 
placing  of  agriculture  in  all  the  high  schools  already 
established;  others  are  urging  the  establishment  of 
separate  agricultural  high  schools.  Each  plan  has  its 
special  advantages  and  disadvantages.  It  is  argued 
against  the  separate  secondary  agricultural  school  that 
"to  segregate  any  class  of  people  from  the  common  mass 
and  to  educate  it  by  itself  and  solely  with  reference  to 
its  own  affairs,  is  to  make  it  narrower  and  more  bigoted, 
generation  by  generation.  It  is  to  substitute  training 
for  education."1  It  is  said,  and  very  truly,  that  "our 

1  Davenport,  E.,  "  Education  for  Efficiency,"  p.  105. 


WHAT   IT   IS   AND    SOMETHING   OF   ITS   HISTORY          Q 

young  people  need  to  be  educated  and  trained  together 
so  that  those  who  are  preparing  for  certain  modes  of  life 
shall  come  in  contact  with  others  who  are  preparing  for 
different  modes  of  life  and  so  acquire  sympathy  for 
other  vocations  besides  their  own.  Boys  and  girls  will 
thus  have  opportunities  for  developing  tastes  and 
modes  of  life  for  which  they  are  best  fitted,  and  which 
otherwise  they  would  entirely  miss." 1  Moreover,  it 
is  impossible,  even  if  it  were  desirable,  for  the  majority 
of  our  boys  and  girls  to  leave  home  to  go  to  these  special 
agricultural  schools.  Whatever  instruction  they  get 
must  be  in  the  local  schools. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  legitimate  place  for 
some  of  these  special  secondary  schools  of  agriculture. 
They  have  already  performed  valuable  work  and  will 
continue  to  do  so.  They  have  stimulated  the  intro- 
duction of  agriculture  into  the  ordinary  high  schools, 
and,  in  a  general  way,  will  set  the  pace  for  them. 

To  be  most  effective  they  should  serve  comparatively 
large  districts,2  several  counties  preferably,  that  there 
may  be  ample  provision  for  their  equipment  and  support 
and  that  they  may  draw  a  sufficient  number  of  students. 
They  will  then  serve  a  most  valuable  purpose  in  our 
scheme  of  agricultural  education.  To  them  may  go 

1  Bricker,  G.  A.,  "Teaching  Agriculture  in  the  High  School,"  p.  41. 

2  Crosby,  D.  J.,  "The  Place  of  the  Agricultural  High  School."    Na- 
tional Education  Association,  Proceedings,  1910,  pp.  1103-1107, 


10          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

those  boys  and  girls  who  do  not  live  where  there  is  a 
local  high  school  giving  agricultural  instruction,  or  who 
desire  a  more  specialized  training  than  the  regular  high 
school  can  give,  yet  who  cannot  go  to  college.  Here 
instruction  may  be  given  for  farmers  and  others  who  by 
reason  of  maturity  or  business  demands  desire,  through 
special  courses,  to  gain  as  much  information  as  possible 
in  a  short  period.  The  colleges  will  thus  be  relieved  of 
much  of  the  short  and  special  course  work  which  they  are 
now  compelled  to  give,  often  to  the  detriment  of  their 
regular  instructional  and  research  work.  And  the  farm- 
ers will  be  helped  quite  as  effectively.  Farmers 
living  at  a  distance  from  the  agricultural  college  will 
often  be  enabled  to  attend  short  courses  at  such  schools 
when  they  could  not  at  the  college.  Experiments  and 
demonstrations  directly  related  to  the  special  problems 
of  the  particular  district  may  be  carried  on  at  the 
school  farm  under  conditions  similar  to  those  with 
which  the  farmers  of  the  district  have  to  deal. 
Valuable  extension  work  may  be  done  among  the  farm- 
ers, and  the  influence  of  the  school  may  be  made 
evident  in  the  agricultural  work  of  the  schools  of  the 
entire  section. 

There  are,  then,  as  we  see,  various  ways  and  means 
in  agricultural  education  in  the  secondary  schools. 
Opinions  differ  as  to  just  the  best  kind  of  secondary  ag- 
ricultural instruction.  But  all  over  the  country  school 


WHAT   IT   IS   AND    SOMETHING   OF   ITS   HISTORY         II 

men  are  agreed  as  to  one  point,  —  that  agricultural  in- 
struction should  be  included  in  the  curricula  of  the  high 
and  other  secondary  schools,  in  one  form  or  another. 
And  all  over  our  own  country,  and  in  Europe  as  well, 
the  schools  are  introducing  it. 

PRACTICUM 

Using  all  available  sources  of  information,  outline  the 
history  of  agricultural  education  in  your  own  state. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

Agricultural  Education.  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Education.  Reports  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1910  and  1911.  Chapters 
4  and  n. 

DAVIS,  B.  M.  Agricultural  Education  in  the  Public  Schools. 
Chapters  3  and  13.  Chic.  University  of  Chicago  Press. 
1912. 

Editorial,  Experiment  Stations  Record,  March,  1912,  pp.  301-305. 

JEWELL,  J.  R.  Agricultural  Education.  Chapter  4.  U.  S.  Bur. 
of  Education  Bui.  2.  1907. 

Progress  in  Agricultural  Education.  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, Annual  Issues. 

ROBISON,  C.  H.  Agricultural  Instruction  in  the  Public  Schools 
of  the  United  States.  Chapters  i,  2,  and  6.  N.  Y.  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University.  1911. 

TRUE,  A.  C.,  and  CROSBY,  D.  J.  The  American  System  of  Agri- 
cultural Education.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Cir.  106. 
1912. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   REASONS   FOR   INTRODUCING   AGRICULTURE   IN 
HIGH   SCHOOLS 

As  stated  by  Dr.  A.  C.  True,  of  the  United  States  Office 
of  Experiment  Stations,  the  claims  of  agriculture  to  a 
place  in  our  public  school  system  are  based  not  only  on 
the  social,  economic,  and  educational  needs  of  agriculture 
and  agricultural  people,  but  on  the  pedagogic  require- 
ments of  a  school  system  which  shall  be  adapted  to  the 
masses  of  the  people  in  a  democratic  and  industrial  state, 
and  the  symmetrical  culture  of  the  mind  and  body  of 
the  human  child.  Intelligent  farmers  and  members  of 
the  teaching  profession  now  "meet  on  a  common  plat- 
form and,  each  party  using  the  arguments  appropriate 
to  his  calling,  agree  that  agriculture  is  a  fit  and  useful 
subject  to  be  taught  in  public  schools."  * 

We  may,  then,  well  sum  up  the  reasons  for  teaching 
agriculture  in  the  high  schools  under  two  heads :  (i)  ar- 
guments for  agricultural  teaching  advanced  by  farmers 
and  others  interested  in  agriculture;  (2)  arguments 
for  agricultural  teaching  advanced  by  school  men. 

1  True,  A.  C.,  "Why  Friends  of  Agricultural  Progress  believe  that 
Agriculture  should  and  will  be  taught  in  the  Public  Schools."  Univer- 
sity of  California  Cir.  17,  p.  i. 

12 


THE    REASONS   FOR   INTRODUCING   AGRICULTURE        13 

Let  us  review  briefly  the  arguments  advanced  by  the 
farmer  and  interested  citizen. 

It  is  said,  first,  that  a  valid  reason  for  teaching  agri- 
culture is  that  agriculture  is  a  great  and  fundamental 
industry.  "On  the  successful  prosecution  of  agriculture 
depend  the  continued  existence  and  prosperity  of  the 
whole  human  race.  By  agriculture  we  are  all  fed  and 
clothed  and,  in  a  large  measure,  are  provided  with  dwell- 
ings and  the  material  comforts  of  civilization."  1  There 
are  more  than  six  million  farms  in  the  United  States,  on 
which  over  ten  million  men  work  for  the  support  of  a 
rural  population  of  over  forty  million.  That  is,  fully 
one- third  of  our  population  is  engaged  in  agriculture. 
In  addition,  over  three  million  persons  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing industries  depend  upon  farm  products  for  their 
raw  material. 

The  number  of  persons  engaged  in  agricultural  pur- 
suits, the  amount  of  our  territory  used  for  agriculture, 
the  variety,  amount,  universal  use,  and  value  of  agricul- 
tural products,  all  demand  that  agriculture  should  be 
given  a  place  in  our  public  schools. 

Moreover,  agriculture  will  always  be  the  chief  business 
of  our  country  if  we  are  to  exist  and  prosper  as  a  nation. 
As  was  well  said  by  former  President  Roosevelt:  "If 

1  True,  A.  C.,  "  Why  the  Friends  of  Agricultural  Progress  believe  that 
Agriculture  should  and  will  be  taught  in  the  Public  Schools."  Uni- 
versity of  California  Cir.  17,  p.  2. 


14          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

there  is  one  lesson  taught  by  history  it  is  that  the  per- 
manent greatness  of  any  State  must  ultimately  depend 
more  upon  the  character  of  its  country  population  than 
anything  else.  No  growth  of  cities,  no  growth  of  wealth, 
can  make  up  for  a  loss  in  either  the  number  or  the  char- 
acter of  the  farming  population.  In  the  United  States 
more  than  in  almost  any  other  country  we  should  realize 
this  and  should  prize  our  country  population.  When 
this  nation  began  its  independent  existence  it  was  a 
nation  of  farmers.  The  towns  were  small  and  were  for 
the  most  part  mere  sea-coast  trading  and  fishing  ports. 
The  chief  industry  of  the  country  was  agriculture,  and 
the  ordinary  citizen  was  in  some  way  connected  with  it. 
In  every  great  crisis  of  the  past  a  peculiar  dependence 
has  had  to  be  placed  upon  the  farming  population,  and 
this  dependence  has  hitherto  been  justified.  But  it 
cannot  be  justified  in  the  future  if  agriculture  is  per- 
mitted to  sink  in  the  scale  as  compared  with  other  em- 
ployments." 1 

In  agriculture  lies  the  prosperity  of  a  nation  and  in 
country  life  we  rightly  expect  to  find  much  of  its  health 
and  vigor  rooted.  But  if  our  agriculture  is  to  be  what 
it  should  be,  if  it  is  to  keep  pace  with  the  improvements 

1  Roosevelt,  T.,  "The  Man  who  works  with  His  Hands,"  p.  6. 
(Address  at  the  semicentennial  celebration  of  the  founding  of  agri- 
cultural colleges  in  the  United  States,  at  Lansing,  Michigan,  May  31, 
1907.  Printed  as  Office  of  the  Secretary  Cir.  24,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.) 


THE   REASONS   FOR   INTRODUCING   AGRICULTURE       15 

in  other  industries,  and  to  grow  with  them,  country 
people  must  be  put  in  sympathy  with  their  work,  must 
be  trained  and  educated  in  terms  of  agriculture  and 
country  affairs. 

Advancement  along  agricultural  lines  has  not  hitherto 
kept  pace  with  the  advancement  along  other  lines.  The 
American  farmer  has  great  educational  needs.  Many 
economic  and  social  questions  of  vast  importance  to  the 
agriculturist  demand  that  he  be  educated  along  the 
lines  of  his  work.  If  American  farmers  are  not  to 
sink  to  the  level  of  the  peasants  of  Europe,  they  must 
be  better  educated  in  the  business  of  farming.  The 
farmer  of  to-day  must  be  a  more  intelligent  and  a  better 
informed  man  than  his  predecessor  to  compete  with  men 
in  other  lines  of  work  and  to  secure  adequate  returns 
for  his  labor  and  capital.  It  has  been  proved  that  agri- 
cultural instruction  increases  the  financial  success  of 
the  agricultural  worker.  Education  counts  for  greater 
income  in  this  as  well  as  in  other  occupations. 

The  workers  in  our  agricultural  experiment  stations 
and  in  the  national  department  of  agriculture  have  dis- 
covered facts  of  the  greatest  importance  to  farmers; 
yet  these  new  truths  are  very  slow  in  reaching  the  farmers 
and  are  very  tardily  taken  advantage  of.  Though  these 
new  facts  are  printed  in  bulletins  and  circulars,  and  re- 
printed in  various  papers,  yet  many  farmers  do  not  hear 
of  them.  Moreover,  even  when  farmers  read  the  pro- 


1 6          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

gressive  agricultural  papers  and  are  on  the  alert  to  se- 
cure bulletins  of  experiment  stations  dealing  with  their 
problems,  frequently  it  is  very  difficult  for  them  to  apply 
what  they  read.  A  farmer  who  has  all  his  life  been  farm- 
ing according  to  some  arbitrary  rules  of  his  father  or  of 
his  neighbors,  cannot  easily  adjust  himself  to  scientific 
methods  whose  application  depends  upon  a  knowledge 
of  conditions  of  which  he  is  ignorant.  He  has  not  been 
educated  in  terms  of  agriculture,  and,  with  his  scant 
knowledge  of  the  basic  principles  underlying  his  art, 
he  finds  it  impossible  to  apply  properly  directions  as  to 
practice. 

As  expressed  by  David  Felmley,  President  of  the  State 
Normal  School  at  Normal,  Illinois,  "It  is  evident  that 
the  agricultural  experiment  station  will  never  accomplish 
its  purpose  unless  there  is  diffused  among  our  farming 
population  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  sciences 
relating  to  agriculture." 

It  is  to  the  public  schools  that  we  must  look  largely 
to  make  this  basic  information  common  and  to  lay  the 
foundation  for  an  understanding  of  the  facts  won  from 
study,  research,  and  experimentation  at  the  colleges 
and  stations.  While  doing  all  we  can  for  the  adult 
farmer,  we  must,  if  we  are  to  have  a  well-informed,  pro- 
gressive agricultural  population,  begin  with  the  farmers 
and  the  farmers'  wives  of  to-morrow  and  instruct  them 
concerning  the  elementary  principles  of  agriculture 


THE   REASONS   FOR   INTRODUCING   AGRICULTURE       17 

in  the  schools.  It  is  possible  for  but  few  of  our  future 
farmers  to  go  to  the  agricultural  colleges.  The  elemen- 
tary and  secondary  schools  must  provide  the  agricultural 
instruction  for  the  masses  of  the  farmers.  They  must 
do  this  not  only  because  the  successful  farmer  needs  a 
knowledge  of  certain  facts,  but  that  through  his  under- 
standing of  basic  principles,  acquired  in  the  school,  he 
may  be  prepared  to  comprehend  future  agricultural  dis- 
coveries and  to  apply  them. 

The  American  population  is  increasing  by  leaps  and 
bounds.  Every  year  millions  of  foreigners  are  added  to 
our  native-born  population.  To  continue  to  support 
this  vast  and  constantly  increasing  population  through 
the  years  to  come,  American  farmers  must  study  and  use 
the  best  and  most  scientific  methods  of  production.  We 
have  already  depleted  our  natural  stores  of  fertility  and 
agricultural  wealth  in  this  country  by  careless  and 
wasteful  methods  in  farming.  Our  farmers  must  learn 
to  conserve  and  build  up  our  resources  as  well  as  to  ex- 
ploit them.  We  can  bring  comparatively  little  new 
land  under  cultivation.  Our  farmers  must  learn  to  use 
what  they  have  to  better  advantage.  They  must  learn 
to  care  for  and  to  use  their  soils  properly ;  to  plant  the 
crops  best  suited  to  their  varying  conditions ;  to  raise 
live  stock  more  economically  and  with  better  results ; 
and  to  market  their  products  to  the  best  advantage  of 
both  producer  and  consumer, 
c 


1 8          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

The  great  problem  of  modern  agriculture  is,  while  in- 
creasing production,  to  conserve  and  enrich  our  soil 
resources;  to  grow  larger  and  better  crops  and  still 
maintain  the  soil  fertility.  The  solution  of  the  problem 
lies  in  agricultural  education.  And  this  education,  for 
the  great  mass  of  farmers,  must  be  given  in  the  public 
schools. 

At  present  half  our  total  exports  are  agricultural  prod- 
ucts of  one  kind  or  another.  Our  farmers  need  good 
markets  abroad  in  order  to  reap  satisfactory  returns 
from  their  crops.  But  in  many  foreign  countries  they 
are  now  educating  the  children  along  agricultural  lines 
in  the  schools,  and  the  adults  in  special  schools  or  under 
traveling  teachers.  And  because  of  this  the  European 
farmers  in  such  countries  are  being  enabled  to  compete 
with  our  farmers  in  spite  of  our  vast  area  and  special 
advantages.  For  example,  the  Danes  receive  $8,500,000 
a  year  more  for  their  bacon,  butter,  and  eggs  than  Eng- 
land pays  to  other  countries  for  the  same  amount  of  such 
produce,  although  twenty  years  ago,  before  the  children 
of  Denmark  were  generally  taught  about  such  things, 
the  Danish  products  received  less  than  the  usual  market 
price.1 

Professor  McKay,  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College, 
found  that  this  Danish  butter  brings  two  to  three  cents 

Jewell,  J.  R.,  "Agricultural  Education,"  p.  116.  U.S.  Bureau  of 
Education  Bui.  2, 1907. 


THE  REASONS  FOR  INTRODUCING  AGRICULTURE   19 

a  pound  more  in  England  than  any  other  butter,  because 
of  its  dry,  mealy  appearance.  Yet  investigation  showed 
that  the  butter  actually  contained  2  to  3  per  cent  more 
water  than  American  or  Canadian  butter.  So  that  the 
Danes  get  two  or  three  more  pounds  of  butter  to  each 
one  hundred  pounds  of  butter  fat  than  we  do,  and  yet 
sell  it  for  two  to  three  cents  a  pound  more.  The  explana- 
tion is  that  the  Danes  have  found  the  secret  of  making 
butter  containing  this  extra  amount  of  water  appear 
to  be  extra  dry,  and  the  process  is  taught  in  the  Danish 
schools. 

European  farmers  buy  our  entire  surplus  of  cotton 
seed  very  cheap  and  feed  the  meal  to  their  cattle,  while 
many  of  our  Southern  farmers  do  not  yet  fully  recognize 
the  value  of  cottonseed  meal  as  a  fattening  product  and 
use  it  very  little  if  any,  although  its  value  was  dem- 
onstrated at  the  University  of  Tennessee  Experiment 
Station  very  thoroughly  a  few  years  ago. 

Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  show  an  average  excess  per 
acre  abroad  over  production  in  the  United  States  of  127 
per  cent  for  wheat,  97  per  cent  for  rye,  36.8  per  cent  for 
oats,  30  per  cent  for  barley,  and  93  per  cent  for  potatoes. 
And  there  is  little  doubt  that  an  important  factor  in  this 
increased  average  production  per  acre  by  foreign  coun- 
tries over  the  United  States  is  the  systematic  method 
pursued  by  these  countries  in  agricultural  education. 


20          MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Nor  is  it  the  prosperity  of  our  farming  districts  and 
states  alone  that  demands  agricultural  training  for  our 
future  farmers.  Successful  agriculture  is  essential  to 
the  prosperity  and  well-being  of  urban  as  well  as  rural 
communities.  The  welfare  of  our  cities  and  of  our  great 
manufacturing  states  depends,  to  no  small  extent,  upon 
our  agricultural  prosperity.  All  over  the  country  the 
prosperity  or  poverty  of  rural  communities  influences 
the  life  of  the  towns  and  cities  near  at  hand.  If  the 
abandoned  farms  of  New  England  could  be  made  produc- 
tive and  economically  valuable,  they  would  be  of  inesti- 
mable value  to  the  factory  employees  of  the  towns  of 
the  region.  All  over  the  South,  city  conditions  would 
be  greatly  bettered  if  the  productiveness  of  the  surround- 
ing country  were  increased.  And  that  this  is  not  im- 
possible, but  a  task  readily  accomplished,  has  already 
been  shown  by  the  work  of  the  late  Dr.  Seaman  A.  Knapp 
among  Southern  farmers.  Better  education  of  the 
owners  and  renters  of  farms  in  methods  of  caring  for  their 
land  and  their  crops  will  increase  their  productivity 
and  their  prosperity. 

Many  towns  and  cities  of  the  United  States  are  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  the  agricultural  territory  surround- 
ing them  for  their  commercial  prosperity,  and  even  for 
their  very  existence.  It  is  not  only  a  matter  of  wise 
forethought  for  the  high  schools  in  such  towns  to  provide 
courses  in  agriculture,  it  is  a  matter  of  right  and  justice. 


THE   REASONS   FOR   INTRODUCING   AGRICULTURE        21 

Such  schools  are  supported  largely  by  agriculture  and 
should  seek  to  promote,  in  the  instruction  which  they 
offer,  the  interests  of  the  industry  to  which  they  owe  so 
much.  The  farmers  of  the  surrounding  communities 
do  not  expect  that  all  the  children  who  go  to  such  schools 
should  develop  into  farmers,  but  only  that,  along  with  the 
other  instruction,  children  be  given  an  opportunity  to  find 
out  that  there  is  in  agriculture,  as  in  other  occupations, 
something  worthy  the  best  intellect  and  the  best  talent. 

All  these  are  arguments  from  the  agricultural  stand- 
point. From  the  educational  standpoint  there  are  still 
other  reasons  why  agriculture  should  be  taught  in  the 
public  schools,  particularly  in  the  high  school. 

It  is  evident  that  in  a  truly  democratic  nation  there 
must  be  equality  of  educational  opportunity  for  all 
children.  Our  free  public  schools  have  from  the  first 
been  open  to  all  classes  and  have  offered  opportunity 
for  the  continuous  mental  development  of  every  child 
to  and  through  the  higher  institutions  of  learning.  We 
have  therefore  prided  ourselves  on  a  school  system  offer- 
ing equality  of  educational  opportunities  to  all.  But 
that  this  pride  was  based  on  a  fallacy  and  that  our  school 
system  did  not  offer  this  equality  of  opportunity  became 
evident  some  years  ago.  Secondary  and  higher  edu- 
cation, particularly,  have  been  largely  confined  to  the 
needs  of  a  particular  class  of  people.  Education  in  this 
country  has  been  universal,  but  narrow  and  undiversified. 


22          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

In  an  undeveloped  state  of  society  the  narrow,  fixed 
course  of  study  is  natural  and  perhaps  desirable.  The 
inefficient  many  subject  themselves  to  the  efficient  few; 
education  is  confined  to  the  upper  classes,  and  is  restricted 
in  variety. 

But  in  the  complex,  highly  developed  social  and  in- 
dustrial conditions  of  our  modern  state,  a  diversified 
system  of  education  is  demanded.  Pupils  come  into  the 
schools  from  all  grades  of  society,  rich  and  poor,  from 
the  homes  of  the  mechanic,  the  artisan,  the  doctor,  the 
lawyer,  the  merchant,  the  literary  worker,  and  many 
others;  and  they  leave  the  schools  for  all  kinds  of  life 
work.  They  differ  in  tastes,  in  talent,  and  in  the  life 
work  which  they  will  later  do.  The  instruction  given 
them  must  be  cut  on  many  patterns.  A  single  type  of 
education  no  longer  meets  the  needs  of  society.  "  Every 
important  form  of  industrial  and  commercial  activity, 
as  well  as  every  phase  of  institutional  and  professional 
life,  demands  its  technically  trained  leaders,  so  that  we 
must  have  schools,  not  only  for  statesmen,  lawyers, 
doctors,  and  divines,  but  for  engineers,  architects,  chem- 
ists, merchants,  industrial  workers  of  every  grade,  and 
even  for  foresters  and  agriculturists.  Many  of  these 
phases  belong  to  University  training,  but  all  of  them 
have  their  roots  in  the  high  school."  l 

1  De  Garmo,  C.,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education;  the  Studies," 
P-  13- 


THE   REASONS   FOR   INTRODUCING   AGRICULTURE      23 

School  men  everywhere  now  recognize  the  necessity 
for  a  reconstruction  of  the  work  of  our  public  school 
system  to  meet  the  demands  of  new  times  and  new  ways. 
The  unsatisfactory  results,  under  present  conditions, 
of  the  old  exclusively  literary  curricula  are  evident.  It 
is  necessary  to  bring  school  work  into  closer  relations 
with  the  real  life  and  activities  of  the  masses  of  our  people. 
That  the  unprecedented  industrial  development  of  the 
past  century  must  be  taken  into  account  in  the  education 
of  our  young  people  is  strongly  felt.1 

Though  we  still  strive,  as  in  past  years,  for  culture  and 
mental  discipline  as  results  of  education,  yet  we  recog- 
nize that  education  is  not  for  these  alone.  The  physical, 
the  economic,  the  social,  the  intellectual,  and  the  spirit- 
ual should  all  have  opportunity  for  development;  and 
the  studies  of  our  schools  should  contribute  towards  that 
development.  Though  intellectual  training  must  al- 
ways continue  to  be  the  dominant  feature  of  all  educa- 
tional work,  yet  we  have  come  to  realize  that  education 
must,  in  addition,  give  efficiency,  if  it  is  to  accomplish 
its  purpose  in  our  modern  world. 

Moreover,  any  one  who  is  thoroughly  informed  as  to 
recent  investigations  in  educational  psychology  knows 

1  Davenport,  E.,  "Industrial  Education  a  Phase  of  the  Problem  of 
Universal  Education."  National  Education  Association,  Proceedings, 
1909,  p.  279.  "No  scheme  of  education  is  truly  universal  or  can  hope  to 
become  so  until  it  not  only  touches  and  uplifts  all  classes  of  men  but  also 
touches  and  uplifts  their  industries  as  well." 


24          MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

that  the  old  idea  that  certain  subjects,  seriously  pursued, 
result  in  the  training  of  particular  faculties,  such  as  ac- 
curacy in  observation,  memory,  etc.,  which  can  be  em- 
ployed in  any  field,  whether  related  to  that  study  or  not, 
is  false.  We  now  know  that  though  training  in  mathe- 
matics, or  foreign  languages,  and  similar  liberal  studies, 
results  in  the  development  of  certain  intellectual  powers, 
yet  these  powers  are  not  as  readily  applied  to  vocational 
pursuits  that  may  be  undertaken  as  was  supposed.  In- 
deed, it  is  asserted  that  training  in  one  field  means  no 
training  at  all  in  other  fields.  Attempts  to  make  the 
subjects  of  liberal  education  yield  vocational  efficiency 
must  fail  because  of  the  very  nature  and  purpose  of  these 
subjects.  To  attempt  to  make  them  vocational  deprives 
them  of  significance  as  factors  in  a  liberal  education 
without  giving  any  real  vocational  efficiency. 

The  objects  of  modern  democratic  education  —  effi- 
ciency with  mental  training  and  culture,  for  many  differ- 
ent classes  of  people  —  can  only  be  attained  by  an  en- 
richment of  the  curriculum  and  the  addition  of  voca- 
tional subjects.  A  few  studies  will  not  accomplish  the 
results  desired  for  our  many  pupils.  A  variety  of  studies 
is  necessary.  There  must  be  opportunity  for  mental 
training  along  many  lines,  that  each  may  get  for  him- 
self that  knowledge  and  those  appreciations,  that  train- 
ing in  habits  and  methods  of  work,  which  will  be  of  the 
greatest  service  to  himself. 


THE   REASONS   FOR   INTRODUCING   AGRICULTURE       25 

In  the  enrichment  and  improvement  of  our  public 
school  work  the  vocational  studies  are  clearly  the  most 
effective  means  to  be  employed,  for  such  studies  not  only 
give  practical  training  for  work  and  life  but  they  realize 
the  aims  of  a  liberal  education.1  They  are  thus  given  an 
advantage  over  the  liberal  studies,  which,  though  impor- 
tant as  factors  in  liberal  education,  do  not  contribute  to 
vocational  training  or  efficiency.  The  vocational  subjects 
vitalize  and  add  interest  to  the  ordinary  work  of  the 
school,  connect  the  school  work  directly  with  life  and  the 

1  Lange,  A.  F.,  "  Self  -directed  High  School  Development."  Univer- 
sity of  California  Chronicle,  vol.  XII,  No.  4,  p.  9.  "The  cultural  mis- 
sion (of  education)  Can  no  longer  be  fulfilled  through  the  so-called  cul- 
ture studies  alone.  Little  by  little  we  shall  doubtless  learn  to  teach 
mathematics  and  the  sciences,  history  and  civics,  literature  and  the  lan- 
guages, so  as  to  start  from  actual  life  for  knowing  and  to  come  back  to 
it  for  doing;  but  even  then  we  cannot  wisely  leave  out  the  subjects 
that  specifically  epitomize  the  economic  activities  of  our  contemporary 
civilization  and  lead  over  to  the  material  side  of  the  world's  work. 
What  life  has  ceased  to  give,  the  school  must  supply  and  improve  on. 
Quite  apart  from  vocational  issues,  efficient  citizenship,  the  very  heart 
of  liberal  culture  from  the  viewpoint  of  democracy,  demands,  now-a- 
days,  a  trinity  of  developed  senses,  —  a  vivid  historic  sense,  the  scientific 
evolutional  sense,  and  a  practical  economic  sense.  It  implies  that 
neither  those  who  can  and  will  prolong  their  school  career  nor  those  who 
must  cut  them  short  should  be  deprived  of  the  chance  to  get  and  keep  in 
active,  intelligent,  sympathetic  touch  with  the  work  and  workers  of  our 
farms,  our  industries,  our  commerce.  Accordingly,  no  high  school  is 
fully  adequate  to  its  cultural  purposes  until  it  has  a  department  of  agri- 
culture, or  of  commerce,  or  of  the  mechanical  and  domestic  arts,  ...  a 
department  in  charge  of  teachers  every  whit  as  broadly  and  thoroughly 
trained  and  as  civilized  as  those  of  other  departments,  —  ought  to  be," 


26          MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

industries  of  the  world,  and  make  the  students  who  go 
out  from  the  schools  more  efficient  workers.  They  give 
information  and  mental  training;  and  they  also  give 
ability  to  do  certain  definite  things. 

The  value  of  these  vocational  studies  was  perhaps 
naturally  first  recognized  in  the  highly  organized  systems 
of  the  cities,  where  the  rapid  increase  in  the  extent  and 
variety  of  the  mechanic  arts  and  manufactures  created 
a  tremendous  demand  for  young  people  prepared  to  deal 
with  the  problems  presented  in  such  pursuits.  The 
teaching  of  manual  and  mechanic  arts  was  provided  for 
and  was  soon  amply  justified.  From  the  city  schools 
the  movement  spread  to  towns  and  villages  and  the  scope 
of  the  industrial  work  given  gradually  broadened. 

The  study  of  agriculture  and  domestic  science,  both 
fundamental  occupations,  though  introduced  somewhat 
later  than  the  manual  training  work,  have  proved  their 
right  to  a  permanent  place  in  our  public  school  system. 
Their  economic  value  was  evident  from  the  first.  Their 
cultural  and  disciplinary  value  has  been  demonstrated. 

Agricultural  instruction  is,  like  that  in  other  vocational 
subjects,  not  only  a  means  of  adjusting  our  public  school 
education  to  the  society  in  which  we  live,  but  of  adjust- 
ing the  education  to  the  individual  to  be  educated. 
Certain  phases  of  agricultural  study  are  particularly 
well  adapted  to  the  adolescent  period  of  development, 
through  which  high  school  boys  and  girls  are  passing. 


THE   REASONS   FOR   INTRODUCING  AGRICULTURE      2J 

The  mental  characteristics  and  attitude  at  this  time  are 
successfully  appealed  to  and  stimulated  by  the  agricul- 
tural work. 

Agricultural  work  in  the  high  school  takes  into  account 
both  the  sensory  and  motor  powers  of  the  individual, 
and  appeals  to  and  assists  in  educating  each.  It  pro- 
vides for  both  impression  and  expression,  for  gaining 
knowledge  and  for  application  of  knowledge.  Though 
rich  in  educational  material  for  those  students  who  are 
mentally  strongest  on  the  sensory-intellectual  side,  it 
provides  particularly  well  for  those  who  are  strong- 
est on  the  intellectual-motor  side. 

Agriculture  is  not  only  a  vocational  or  industrial  course. 
It  is  a  scientific  course.  To  understand  and  practice 
agriculture  properly,  the  elementary  principles  of  all  the 
high  school  sciences  must  be  understood.  By  agricul- 
ture these  are  vitalized  and  their  application  to  real  life 
made  evident. 

Nor  is  agriculture  merely  vocational  and  scientific. 
It  is  also  cultural.1  It  teaches  how  to  think,  how  to  do, 

1  Eliot,  C.  W.,  "A  New  Definition  of  the  Cultured  Man."  National 
Education  Association,  Proceedings,  1903,  p.  54.  "Let  us  as  teachers 
accept  no  single  element  or  kind  of  culture  as  the  one  essential ;  let  us 
remember  that  the  best  fruits  of  real  culture  are  an  open  mind,  broad  sym- 
pathies, and  respect  for  all  the  diverse  achievements  of  the  human  intellect 
at  whatever  stage  of  development  they  may  actually  be,  —  the  stage  of 
fresh  discovery,  or  bold  exploration,  or  complete  conquest.  Let  us  re- 
member that  the  moral  elements  of  the  new  education  are  individual 
choice  of  study  and  career  among  a  great,  new  variety  of  studies  and 


28          MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

and  gives  a  broad  view  of  life.1  If  properly  taught, 
such  work,  perhaps  better  than  any  other  one  subject, 
makes  possible  the  attaining  of  all  the  objects  of  school 
instruction  —  of  education  —  as  denned  by  former 
President  Eliot  of  Harvard.  It  teaches  how  to  "see 
straight  and  clear;  to  compare  and  infer;  to  make  an 
accurate  record ;  to  remember ;  to  express  thought  with 
precision ;  and  to  hold  fast  on  lofty  ideals." 

The  agricultural  course  in  the  high  school  prepares 
those  students  who  cannot  go  beyond  the  secondary 
schools,  and  who  are  interested  in  agriculture,  for  a  defi- 
nite life  work  worthy  of  the  best  efforts  of  any  intellect. 
It  prepares  the  student  who  wishes  to  become  an  agri- 
cultural expert  for  the  college,  where  he  can  complete 
his  education.  For  the  student  in  other  courses,  agri- 
cultural instruction,  besides  the  mental  training  which 
it  affords,  vitalizes  the  regular  science  work,  gives  some 

careers,  early  responsibility  accompanying  this  freedom  of  choice,  love 
of  truth  now  that  truth  may  be  directly  sought  through  rational  inquiry, 
and  an  omnipotent  sense  of  social  obligation.  Those  moral  elements 
are  so  strong  that  the  new  forms  of  culture  are  likely  to  prove  themselves 
quite  as  productive  of  morality,  high-mindedness,  and  idealism  as  the 
old." 

1  De  Garmo,  C.,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education;  Processes  of 
Instruction,"  Preface,  p.  vi.  "All  teaching  is  cultural  in  proportion 
to  the  extent  and  quality  of  the  insight  it  enables  the  student  to  attain. 
All  instruction,  likewise,  is  disciplinary  to  the  extent  that  it  renders 
the  student  efficient  in  the  use  of  what  he  has  learned.  Culture  and  dis- 
cipline are  accordingly  the  inevitable  concomitants  of  all  good  instruc- 
tion and  they  become  in  turn  the  just  measure  of  its  effectiveness." 


THE   REASONS   FOR   INTRODUCING  AGRICULTURE      2Q 

understanding  and  appreciation  of  a  fundamental  in- 
dustry and  our  universal  dependence  on  it,  and  dignifies 
an  indispensable  occupation. 

The  inclusion  of  agriculture  and  other  vocational  work 
in  the  high  school  curriculum  gives  to  students  a  view 
of  the  kind  of  work  typical  of  various  occupations  and 
thus  assists  them  in  selecting  a  life  work.1  "Not  every 
boy  born  in  the  city  should  always  remain  there;  nor 
should  every  boy  born  on  the  farm  be  a  farmer.  The 
teaching  of  agriculture  and  the  manual  arts  in  the  public 
schools  will  afford  an  opportunity  for  selection,  and  the 
boy  from  the  city  with  rural  tastes  will,  through  this 
special  course  in  instruction,  secure  new  information 
and  a  proper  attitude  towards  the  farm.  The  boy  from 
the  farm  will  have  an  opportunity  to  secure  information 
and  a  new  ideal  of  farm  life,  but  if  some  other  vocation 
appeals  to  him  more  strongly,  the  work  of  the  high 
school  will  discover  it."  2 

1  Hyatt,  E.,  "The  Opportunity  of  the  California  High  School,"  1910, 
Bui.  California  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  3.     "Is 
it  the  part  of  wisdom  to  exclude  our  chief est  industry  from  the  high  school, 
where  our  choicest  young  people  are  preparing  for  life?    The  thing  is 
absurd;    preposterous.    The  genius  of  agriculture  should  overshadow, 
dominate  our  rural  high  schools.     Our  high  schools  everywhere  should 
be  in  sympathy  with  the  industrial  life  of  the  people  who  surround  them 
and  should  intelligently  undertake  to  broaden  and  enrich  that  life  to 
make  it  more  efficient,  better  able  to  meet  competition.     In  that  way 
only  can  the  high  school  in  future  have  a  right  to  live  and  grow." 

2  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  Department  of  Agricultural  Educa- 
tion.   "  Course  in  Agriculture  for  the  High  Schools  of  Michigan,"  p.  5. 


30          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

Lastly,  we  may  give  as  an  argument  for  agricultural 
education  in  the  secondary  schools  the  fact  that  in  what- 
ever country  such  instruction  has  been  introduced 
(notably  France  and  Belgium),  it  has  materially  raised 
the  age  of  leaving  school,  —  from  two  to  three  years. 
What  statistics  we  have  so  far  been  able  to  accumulate 
in  the  United  States  go  to  prove  that  the  same  thing  is 
true  in  this  country  where  agriculture  has  been  put  into 
the  schools.  This  alone  should  prove  a  valid  reason  for 
its  inclusion  in  the  curriculum,  and  when  considered 
in  connection  with  its  proved  educational  value,  should 
insure  it  a  universal  and  permanent  place  in  our  public 
school  work. 

PRACTICUM 

List  at  least  five  instances  in  which  it  can  be  clearly 
proved  that  agricultural  information,  secured  through 
study  or  experiment  at  our  educational  institutions,  has 
materially  increased  the  products  and  profits  of  a  locality 
or  state. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

Course  in  Agriculture  for  the  High  Schools  of  Michigan.  Michi- 
gan Agricultural  College.  Department  of  Agricultural 
Education  Bui.  7,  1911,  pp.  5-6. 

HAYS,  W.  M.  Education  for  Country  Life.  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations  Cir.  84.  1909. 

HENDERSON,  E.  N.  The  Industrial  Factor  in  Education.  Na- 
tional Education  Association,  Proceedings,  1910,  pp. 
666-75- 


THE   REASONS   FOR   INTRODUCING   AGRICULTURE      31 

JEWELL,  J.  R.  Agricultural  Education.  Chapter  6.  U.  S. 
Bur.  of  Education  Bui.  2.  1907. 

SNEDDEN,  DAVID.  Problem  of  Vocational  Education.  Chapters 
i  to  4.  Bost.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.  1910. 

THOMAS,  D.  Y.  The  Need  for  Agricultural  Education.  Annals 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  Science,  1910,  vol. 
35,  pp.  150-55- 

TRUE,  A.  C.  Why  the  Friends  of  Agricultural  Progress  believe 
that  Agriculture  should  and  will  be  taught  in  the  Public 
Schools.  University  of  California  Cir.  17.  An  address 
read  at  a  joint  session  of  the  California  Teachers'  Association 
and  the  State  Farmers'  Institute,  December,  1905. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    PLACE    OF   AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH    SCHOOL 
CURRICULUM 

OBSERVATION  and  investigation  show  clearly  that 
modern  industrial  and  social  conditions  demand  a  new 
kind  of  education,  in  which  the  instruction  given  in  our 
public  schools  shall  cover  a  wide  range  of  studies  and 
include  many  subjects,  some  of  which  at  least  are  inti- 
mately connected  with  basic  industries  and  the  real  life 
and  activities  of  the  masses  of  our  people. 

It  is  obvious,  however,  that  in  our  public  high  schools 
it  is  necessary  for  many  reasons  to  limit  the  number  of 
subjects  to  be  taught  and  to  select  from  each  only 
special  portions  for  study.  We  must,  therefore,  select 
from  the  many  possible  subjects  those  which  seem  best 
suited  for  high  school  study,  and  we  must  decide  as  to 
what  portion  of  each  subject  shall  be  pursued,  when  it 
shall  be  begun,  in  what  order  taken  up,  and  how  long 
studied.  That  is,  we  must  arrange  a  high  school  cur- 
riculum. 

In  making  up  this  curriculum  as  a  whole  we  must 
remember  that  all  studies  naturally  group  themselves 
in  three  classes :  the  natural  sciences,  or  those  that  per- 

32 


AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH  SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      33 

tain  solely  to  nature ;  the  humanities,  or  those  that  per- 
tain primarily  to  things  purely  human,  such  as  history 
and  languages;  and  the  economic  sciences,  or  those  in 
which  "  the  laws  of  nature  are  applied  by  human  volition 
to  produce  the  conditions  for  the  well-being  of  individuals, 
the  multiplication  of  populations,  and  the  further  devel- 
opment both  of  natural  sciences  and  all  that  pertains 
to  man  as  such."  *  No  one  of  these  groups  may  be  over- 
looked. Courses  representative  of  each  should  be  in- 
cluded in  the  curriculum.  In  the  small  high  school  it 
may  be  necessary  to  confine  the  curriculum  to  a  very 
few  of  what  seem  to  be,  for  secondary  students,  the  more 
important  representatives  of  each  type.  In  the  high 
school  with  a  large  corps  of  teachers,  there  may  be  very 
many  studies  representative  of  each  great  type  of 
studies. 

That  no  one  student  is  able  profitably  to  pursue  all 
the  many  lines  of  study  of  the  modern  high  school  is 
evident,  since  this  is  prevented  by  lack  of  time.  More- 
over, it  is  inadvisable,  even  if  it  were  possible,  for  him 
to  pursue  every  individual  study  throughout  his  entire 
high  school  course. 

It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  arrange  the  subjects 
of  the  curriculum  into  courses  of  study,  each  of  which  is 
fitted  to  the  needs  of  a  special  class  of  students ;  as,  those 

1  De  Garmo,  C.,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education;  the  Studies," 
p.  46. 

D 


34          MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

who  are  preparing  for  certain  definite  courses  in  college, 
those  who  expect  to  leave  the  high  school  for  vocations, 
those  who  are  particularly  adapted  to  benefit  by  certain 
lines  of  work,  etc.  However,  in  making  up  the  special 
courses  of  study,  as  in  the  making  of  the  curriculum, 
representatives  of  all  the  great  groups  of  study  should 
be  included.  In  each  of  the  special  courses  of  study 
must  be  included  a  maximum  of  those  subjects  which 
will  be  particulary  useful  to  the  student  in  his  further 
education  or  in  his  life  work,  but  at  the  same  time  oppor- 
tunity must  be  given  for  the  acquirement  of  an  education 
that  is  in  no  way  limited  to  the  demands  of  his  special 
vocation  or  special  interest.  Some  of  the  work  of  each 
course  must  be  prescribed,  for  the  school  authorities 
naturally  know  far  better  than  the  immature  student 
what  subjects  are  absolutely  necessary  in  a  rational, 
progressive,  well-balanced  course  along  the  chosen  line. 
To  suit  individual  differences  in  taste,  ability,  and  per- 
sonal need,  there  must  also  be  opportunity  for  many 
elective  studies.  No  important  field  of  knowledge  or 
of  essential  training  can  be  overlooked  or  ignored.  At 
the  same  time,  opportunity  must  be  given  for  individual 
choice  within  the  selected  course. 

The  organization  of  the  classical,  modern-language, 
scientific,  and  certain  other  high  school  courses  has  been 
well  worked  out;  and  these  are  fairly  fixed,  though 
flexible  in  nature.  But  the  organization  of  the  high 


AGRICULTURE   IN    THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      35 

school  agricultural  course,  though  it  has  for  some  years 
been  a  matter  of  much  discussion,  is  very  unsettled. 
There  is  as  yet  no  harmony  of  opinion  as  to  just  what 
shall  be  taught,  or  when.  The  agricultural  materials 
to  be  used  and  the  teaching  methods  to  be  employed 
are  undetermined.  Few  definite  principles  of  procedure 
in  the  organization  and  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the 
high  school  have  been  enunciated ;  and  practically  none 
have  been  established.  In  short,  while  educators  are 
agreed  as  to  the  necessity  and  value  of  agricultural  in- 
struction in  the  secondary  schools  of  communities  where 
agricultural  interests  are  prominent,  they  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  organization  of  the  work  or  the  methods 
by  which  it  shall  be  taught;  and  comparatively  few 
pedagogically  sound  ideas  have  been  put  forth  on  either 
point. 

The  reasons  for  this  chaotic  condition  are  numerous. 
As  yet  the  differentiation  between  the  agricultural  work 
of  the  upper  grammar  grades  and  the  early  years  of  the 
high  school  is  very  imperfectly  worked  out.  The  sec- 
ondary schools  are  in  many  cases  obliged  to  give  work 
which  might  well  be  given  in  the  elementary  schools. 
The  colleges  and  universities  are  still  giving  courses  which 
will  probably  later  be  conceded  to  belong  only  in  the 
secondary  schools.  This  makes  the  laying  down  of  any 
rules  as  to  the  work  to  be  given  in  the  high  school  very 
difficult.  Doubtless  this  differentiation  will  eventually 


36          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

be  worked  out  by  the  normal  schools  and  colleges  teach- 
ing elementary  and  high  school  methods  in  agriculture, 
but  at  present  very  little  has  been  done. 

The  function  of  agriculture  and  the  other  sciences  in 
the  high  school  and  their  relation  to  each  other  are  not 
as  yet  perfectly  clear.  We  must  have  a  better  under- 
standing of  this  before  we  can  organize  the  high  school 
agricultural  course  to  the  best  advantage.  It  is  argued 
by  some  that  agriculture  must  be  introduced  in  the 
high  school  as  one  means  of  vitalizing  the  sciences,  but 
that  it  should  be  taught  in  connection  with  the  sciences 
and  not  as  a  separate  course,  except  possibly  in  the  last 
year  of  the  high  school,  when  a  synthetic  course  may 
well  be  given.  By  others  it  is  urged  that  the  sciences 
should  change  their  viewpoint  and  be  taught  from  the 
viewpoint  of  agriculture,  domestic  science,  and  other 
industrial  occupations,  not  only  for  the  vitalizing  of  the 
science  work,  but  in  order  that  the  special  courses  in 
agriculture,  domestic  science,  etc.,  may  thus  be  per- 
mitted to  put  more  time  on  the  technical  phases  of  their 
subject  matter.  Still  others  hold  that  while  courses  in 
agriculture  may  well  be  included  in  the  high  school, 
their  chief  function  is  to  serve  as  a  vehicle  for  scientific 
facts  and  as  a  means  of  relating  the  various  sciences 
one  to  the  other,  not  to  prepare  students  to  do  definite 
agricultural  work. 

However,  the  majority  of  teachers  feel  that  though 


AGRICULTURE    IN   THE    HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      37 

agriculture  depends  upon  the  various  sciences,  and  the 
successful  agricultural  student  must  learn  and  apply 
various  botanical,  chemical,  physical,  and  physiological 
facts  and  principles,  yet  both  agriculture  and  the  various 
sciences  should  be  taught  from  their  own  standpoints. 
Though  granting  that  in  the  teaching  of  the  sciences 
many  agricultural  applications  may  well  be  noted  and 
made  use  of,  and  though  realizing  that  in  agricultural 
teaching  the  scientific  principles  underlying  the  art 
must  be  made  plain,  they  feel  that  agriculture  should 
be  taught  as  agriculture,  chemistry  as  chemistry,  and 
botany  as  botany.  They  say  that  there  is  no  more 
reason  for  incorporating  agriculture  with  the  other 
sciences  in  the  high  school  than  there  is  for  incorporating 
domestic  science  with  them;  that  agriculture  should 
be  taught  as  a  separate  course  just  as  domestic  science, 
manual  training,  and  other  industrial  work  is  taught 
separately.  Moreover,  though  agriculture  is  an  indus- 
trial course  it  is  also  a  scientific  course ;  and  there  is  no 
more  reason  for  correlating  agriculture  with  the  other 
sciences  at  the  expense  of  a  separate  place  in  the  curric- 
ulum than  there  is  of  so  treating  physical  geography, 
or  botany,  or  physiology.  All  three  of  these  draw  on 
the  other  sciences  very  largely,  yet  their  right  to  a  sepa- 
rate place  in  the  curriculum  is  not  even  challenged. 
Then,  too,  not  only  does  agriculture  cease  to  be  pre- 
sented in  the  most  profitable  way  for  high  school  stu- 


38          MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

dents  when  given  only  in  connection  with  the  other 
sciences,  but  if  chemistry  is  limited  to  agricultural 
chemistry,  physics  to  agricultural  physics,  botany  to 
agricultural  botany,  and  so  on,  these  sciences  themselves 
suffer.  They  are  to  some  extent  vitalized  by  the  agri- 
cultural applications,  to  be  sure,  but  they  are  limited 
in  effectiveness  by  the  definiteness  of  their  scope.  Many 
of  the  high  school  pupils  will  not  take  up  agricultural 
work,  but  will  go  from  high  school  into  other  industries. 
It  is  not  fair  to  them  that  they  should,  in  the  few  years 
of  their  schooling,  be  limited  in  their  pursuit  of  science 
studies  by  having  the  work  of  those  studies  largely  con- 
trolled by  the  applications  of  a  single  industry. 

All  these  suggested  questions,  and  many  others,  as 
to  the  function  of  agriculture  and  the  sciences  in  the 
high  school,  their  relation  to  each  other,  and  the  extent 
to  which  cooperation  between  them  is  profitable  and 
advisable,  must  be  debated  and  more  or  less  definite 
conclusions  reached  before  we  can  have  a  systematic, 
satisfactory  high  school  agricultural  course,  the  general 
outlines  of  which  are  universally  accepted. 

Moreover,  we  have  the  special  technical  agricultural 
high  schools  and  the  regular  high  schools  giving  agri- 
cultural courses.  For  both  of  these,  at  present,  there 
seems  to  be  a  field.  But  it  is  evident  that  the  courses 
must  differ  considerably  in  the  two  classes  of  schools. 
The  local  high  schools  cannot  try  to  do  as  pretentious 


AGRICULTURE    IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      39 

work  as  the  special  schools  because  of  the  excessive 
cost  of  an  extensive  equipment.  The  selection  of  courses 
for  any  local  public  high  school  will  necessarily,  for  many 
years  at  least,  be  more  or  less  influenced  by  the  means 
available  for  equipping  and  maintaining  the  work. 

Then,  too,  conditions  differ  in  different  states  and  lo- 
calities. Agricultural  instruction  in  the  secondary 
schools,  to  be  of  the  greatest  value,  must  be  definitely 
adapted  to  the  community.  A  fixed  course  and  fixed 
materials  for  instruction  will  fit  very  few  places.  Mate- 
rials for  instruction  must  be  selected  from  the  vast 
wealth  provided  by  the  science  and  art  of  agriculture 
with  regard  to  the  needs  of  local  pupils  and  of  the  com- 
munity. 

In  spite  of  this  unsettled  condition  of  opinion  as  to 
the  character  of  the  agricultural  work  to  be  given  in  the 
high  school,  there  are  certain  definite  points  which  must 
be  considered  in  planning  the  agricultural  work  in  any 
high  school  where  it  is  given  as  a  separate  course. 

We  must  decide  on  the  studies  to  be  chosen  for  the 
course,  remembering  that  besides  agricultural  subjects 
(representing  the  economic  sciences),  we  must  have  in 
the  course  representatives  of  each  of  the  other  distinc- 
tive types  or  groups  of  studies,  —  the  natural  sciences 
and  the  humanities.  This  is  true  not  only  because 
certain  of  these  studies  are  needed  for  the  better  under- 
standing of  agriculture,  but  because  such  a  course  seems 


40          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

to  furnish  the  material  best  suited  to  the  all-round 
development  of  the  individual.  The  degree  and  kind 
of  representation  must  necessarily  be  governed  partly 
by  the  size  and  qualifications  of  the  teaching  corps  and 
partly  by  the  general  character  of  the  agricultural  course. 

We  must  decide  upon  the  number  of  recitation  and 
laboratory  periods  per  week  that  can  reasonably  be  re- 
quired of  each  student,  being  guided  in  our  decision 
by  the  experience  of  other  schools. 

We  must  determine  the  amount  of  time  which  shall 
be  given  to  each  study  chosen,  deciding  the  terms  or 
years  during  which  it  shall  be  taught  and  the  number 
and  length  of  the  class  periods  per  week.  The  agri- 
cultural work  will  naturally  run  throughout  the  entire 
four  years,  in  one  form  or  another.  The  work  in  other 
subjects  will  be  given  less  time,  though  sufficient  for  a 
complete  mastery  of  the  portions  of  the  subject  chosen 
for  instruction. 

Having  decided  upon  the  subjects  which  shall  be 
taught  in  the  course  and  the  amount  of  time  to  be  given 
to  them,  we  must  next  determine  as  to  the  content  of 
the  subjects  chosen,  —  that  is,  as  to  the  materials  for 
instruction  in  each  course.  In  this,  as  in  the  other 
problems  noted,  cumulative  experience  is  the  best 
guide.  We  must  turn  for  help  to  such  published  reports 
as  those  of  the  National  Education  Association,  of  state 
boards  of  education,  and  of  the  agricultural  education 


AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL  CURRICULUM      41 

experts  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Many  of  these  are  national  in  scope  and  of  great  value. 
But  in  organizing  the  agricultural  work  of  any  school 
we  must  also  turn  to  the  experience  of  schools  located 
in  districts  closely  resembling  the  one  we  plan  to  serve. 
For  in  choosing  the  branches  of  agricultural  instruction 
to  be  presented  in  any  given  high  school  and  in  deter- 
mining the  materials  to  be  used,  we  must  take  into  ac- 
count the  agricultural  conditions  of  the  district.  We 
must  teach  the  same  basic  principles  of  agriculture  in 
all  schools,  but  our  selection  of  materials  and  emphasis 
of  topics  in  presentation  must  be  modified  by  local  con- 
ditions and  interests. 

For  example,  if  our  high  school  is  located  in  a  district 
where  live  stock  raising  is  impracticable,  our  courses 
in  that  subject  will  be  very  much  more  limited  than  if 
our  high  school  is  in  a  stock  raising  locality.  If  the  para- 
mount interests  of  the  community  are  in  horticulture, 
and  practically  no  grain  is  raised,  it  would  not  be  wise 
to  devote  time  to  the  study  of  even  such  an  admirable 
book  as  Hunt's  "  Cereals  in  America."  In  such  a  place 
the  time  devoted  to  the  study  of  grains  must  be  limited. 

Some  of  the  work  of  the  agricultural  course  of  the 
modern  high  school  will  be  prescribed  and  some  elective. 
Those  studies  dealing  with  the  fundamental  and  ele- 
mentary principles  of  plant  and  animal  production  and 
farm  management  must  evidently  be  prescribed.  But 


42          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

those  branches  dealing  with  special  phases  of  the  indus- 
try, as  poultry  work,  bee-keeping,  etc.,  may  very  well 
be  elective.  In  the  choosing  of  subjects  from  the  hu- 
manities and  the  natural  sciences  there  should  also  be 
both  electives  and  prescribed  work.  The  essentials, 
as  indicated  by  experience,  must  be  prescribed.  Other 
work  may  well  be  elective  and  selected  by  individual 
students  according  to  personal  taste  and  ability. 

We  must,  in  deciding  all  these  questions,  keep  in  mind 
not  only  the  present  and  future  needs  of  the  student, 
the  knowledge  necessary  for  complete  living  and  for 
vocational  efficiency,  but  also  certain  psychological 
factors.1  In  our  selection  of  studies  and  materials  and 
in  their  order  of  presentation  we  must  bear  in  mind  the 
characteristics  of  the  individual  during  this  adolescent 
period  of  development.  We  should  take  into  account 
the  apperceptive  basis  which  the  student  has  for  the 
work,  that  is,  his  previously  acquired  ideas  and  experi- 
ences; his  previously  acquired  habits,  in  accordance 
with  which  he  adjusts  himself  to  his  environment ;  and 
the  economic  sanction,  by  which  an  appeal  is  made  to 
the  pupil's  desire  for  production  and  ownership  and  by 
means  of  which  his  serviceableness  to  the  race  may  be 
increased. 

In  addition,  in  certain  districts  the  sequence  of  studies 

1  Bricker,  G.  A.,  "The  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  High  School," 
pp.  56-90. 


AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL  CURRICULUM      43 

must  be  affected  more  or  less  by  the  seasons.  This  is 
not  true  in  parts  of  the  South  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
however.  There,  almost  any  necessary  materials  for 
agricultural  study  can  be  secured  at  any  time  of  year. 
The  work  is  not  hampered  and  hindered  by  seasonal 
conditions  as  in  the  East,  and  it  is  not  necessary  that 
these  determine  the  sequence  of  agricultural  studies. 

In  planning  the  four  years'  agricultural  work  of  the 
high  school  it  is  evident  that  the  study  of  the  plant 
furnishes  probably  the  best  first  year  or  beginning  course. 
All  agricultural  occupations  are  based  on  plant  produc- 
tion. Moreover,  many  plants  are  familiar  to  children 
and  by  their  use  in  instruction  advantage  may  be  taken 
of  the  psychological  factor  of  apperception.  Then,  too, 
the  economic  sanction  is  strong  in  this  as  in  much  of  the 
other  agricultural  work. 

In  presenting  the  work  there  are  good  psychological 
reasons  for  beginning  with  the  study  of  plant  products 
and  following  this  with  study  of  the  plants  producing 
them.  If  no  agricultural  work  has  been  given  in  the 
elementary  school,  this  order  of  presentation  may  be 
necessary.  But  it  is  far  preferable  that  the  elementary 
study  of  plant  products,  and  of  certain  animal  products 
as  well,  should  be  taken  up  in  the  elementary  schools, 
and  the  agricultural  work  of  the  high  school  begin  with 
a  study  of  plant  growth  and  development. 

From  this  elementary  introductory  work  there  natu- 


44          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

rally  opens  up  a  somewhat  detailed  study  of  environ- 
mental conditions,  —  temperature,  light,  heat,  moisture, 
soils,  fertilizers,  etc.,  followed  by  special  study  of  impor- 
tant crop  plants  of  the  locality.  A  study  of  farm  animals, 
the  utilizers  of  plant  products,  and  of  animal  products 
and  their  utilization,  as  in  dairying,  comes  next.  Farm 
machinery  (needed  in  the  production  and  care  of  plants 
and  animals  and  their  products),  and  its  use,  should 
then  be  studied ;  while  last  in  order  should  come  the 
consideration  of  all  the  things  that  go  to  make  up  the 
farm  work  and  life  in  their  relation  to  each  other,  —  that 
is,  farm  management  and  farm  economics. 

We  thus  proceed,  in  accordance  with  pedagogical  prin- 
ciples, from  the  more  familiar  to  the  less  familiar,  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown ;  and  from  the  concrete  and 
definite  to  the  more  abstract  principles  of  agricultural 
practice. 

Though  the  courses  given  and  the  amount  of  time 
allotted  to  each  may  vary  widely  to  suit  different  condi- 
tions, the  sequence  of  studies  should  be,  in  general,  as 
outlined.  During  the  first  high  school  year  there  should 
be  an  orderly  and  progressive  study  of  the  elements  of 
plant  production  and  some  special  study  of  local  crops. 
Animal  production,  usually  given  under  the  names  of 
animal  husbandry  or  zootechny,  may  follow  in  the 
second  year,  or,  if  horticultural  interests  are  paramount, 
horticulture  may  follow  the  introductory  course  in  plant 


AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      45 

production.  If  dairying  is  an  industry  of  sufficient 
importance  in  the  community,  a  course  in  this  subject 
may  well  be  given  during  one  semester  of  the  year  in 
which  animal  husbandry  is  given.  In  any  event,  some 
time  should  be  given  to  the  study  and  testing  of  dairy 
products.  If  no  dairy  course  is  given,  this  may  be  in- 
serted in  the  animal  husbandry  course.  If  horticulture 
is  of  relatively  little  importance  in  the  locality  and  live 
stock  raising  is  preeminent,  a  special  course  in  poultry 
culture  or  some  special  live  stock  topic  may  well  be  given 
a  half  of  the  year  which  would  otherwise  be  assigned 
to  horticulture.  In  the  last  high  school  year,  as  men- 
tioned before,  should  come  an  elementary  study  of  the 
more  important  topics  dealing  with  agricultural  machin- 
ery, rural  engineering,  rural  economics,  and  general 
farm  management. 

Rural  engineering  in  many  of  its  aspects  is  too  technical 
for  students  in  secondary  schools ;  but  some  time  should 
be  given  to  the  study  of  ordinary  farm  machinery,  to 
planning  the  outlay  of  farms,  farm  buildings,  water  and 
sewage  disposal  systems,  etc.  Many  rural  economic 
topics  are  unsuitable  for  study  in  secondary  schools. 
But  some  of  the  more  important  social  and  economic 
problems  of  rural  life  should  certainly  be  presented  for 
discussion,  and  the  general  principles  of  marketing, 
farm  accounts,  etc.,  should  be  studied. 

In  time  we  shall  doubtless  have  as  helps  in  the  or- 


46 


MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


ganization  of  the  high  school  agricultural  course  many 
carefully  formulated  outlines  of  courses  as  adapted  to 
special  states  and  localities.  In  the  meantime  we  must 
use  the  best  at  present  available  to  help  us  in  outlining 
others.  Several  of  these  are  appended,  showing  the 
practice  in  different  localities  where  agriculture  has 
been  successfully  taught,  or  giving  examples  of  courses 
worked  out  in  support  of  special  theories  as  to  secondary 
agricultural  education. 

A 

Syllabus  of  a  four-year  secondary  course  in  agriculture  prepared  by 
A.  C.  True  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
(Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Cir.  91,  pp.  10-11.) 

REQUIRED  SUBJECTS 


HOURS  P 

ER  WEEK 

UNITS1 

TOTAL 

ist  Year 

adYear 

3d  Year 

4th  Year 

HOORS* 

English  . 

3 

5 

5 

3 

2 

540 

Algebra  . 

i 

5 

1  80 

Geometry 

i 

5 

180 

History  . 

i 

2 

3 

180 

Botany  . 

i 

5 

180 

Chemistry 

i 

5 

180 

French  or  Ger- 

man  .     .     . 

2 

5 

5 

360 

Agriculture 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

720 

Elective      .     . 

2 

5 

5 

360 

Total  .     . 

2880 

1  A  unit  consists  of  180  hours,  i.e.  5  hours  per  week  for  36  weeks. 

2  Recitation  periods  of  45  minutes  are  designated  as  "hours."    In 
laboratory  practice,  demonstrations,  bookkeeping,  surveying,  and  agri- 
cultural practice  an  hour  is  a  double  period  or  90  minutes. 


AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      47 
ELECTIVE  SUBJECTS 


SUBJECTS 

UNITS 

HOURS  PER  WEEK 

TOTAL 
HOURS 

Drawing 

i 

i  hour      i  year 

^6 

Bookkeeping       

i  hour      i  year 

^6 

Civics    

I 

2  hours    i  year 

72 

Solid  geometry    
Plane  trigonometry  and  sur- 
veying     
French  or  German  .... 
Botany,  chemistry,  or  physics 
Agriculture,  horticulture,  or 
elementary  forestry.1     .     . 

I 

t 

i 
i 

5  hours    ^  year 

2  hours     2  years 
5  hours     i  year 
5  hours     i  year 
i  to  5  hours 
3d  and  4th  year 

QO 
144 

180 
180 

REQUIRED  SUBJECTS  FOR  ALL  STUDENTS  IN  AGRICULTURE 


i 

HOURS  PI 

SR  WEEK 

TOTAL 

SUBJECTS 

UNITS 

ist  Year 

2d  Year 

3d  Year 

4th  Year 

HOURS 

The  plant  and  its  envi- 
ronment     
Farm  crops  

, 

2 

I 

72 

s6 

Agricultural  engineering 
Horticulture    and    for- 
estry     

! 
i 

I 
I 

I 

72 
36 

Economic  entomology   . 
Animal  husbandry    .     . 
Dairying      
Diseases  of  plants  and 
animals    
Farm  management    .     . 
Subjects    to    be    added 
from  subjoined  list  A  . 

| 

i 

2 

2 

I 

2 
2 

2 

3 

72 
72 
36 

72 
72 

180 

Total    

720 

1  These  are  in  addition  to  the  720  hours  of  required  subjects  in  agri- 
culture and  are  offered  to  permit  specialization  in  some  branch  of  agri- 
culture by  students  not  intending  to  take  a  college  course  in  agriculture. 


48 


MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


LIST  A.  —  SUBJECTS  FROM  WHICH  SELECTION  MUST  BE  MADE  TO 

MAKE   UP   THE   REQUIRED    720  HOURS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


HOURS  P 

ER  WEEK 

TOTAL 

SUBJECTS 

3d  Year 

4th  Year 

HOURS 

Farm  crops  

2 

2 

72  or  144 

Animal  husbandry      
Dairying  

2 
2 

2 
2 

72  or  144 

72  Or  144 

Horticulture      

2 

72 

Forestry 

2 

72 

Agricultural  engineering      .     .     . 
Rural  economics 

I 

2 
I 

72 
-i(\  or      72 

Plant  breeding            

I 

2 

36  or  108 

B 

University   of   Wisconsin    recommended    high    school  course  in 

agriculture. 
(University  of  Wisconsin  Bui.  No.  441,  High  School  Series  No. 

12,  pp.  8-9.) 

General  outline  of  agricultural  units.1 
Farm  mechanics. 

One-half  unit  in  freshman  year. 
Farm  management. 

One-half  unit  in  freshman  or  senior  year. 
Plant  husbandry. 

One  unit  in  sophomore  year. 
Animal  husbandry. 

One  unit  in  junior  year. 
Agricultural  chemistry  and  soils. 

One  unit  in  senior  year. 

General  outline  of  basic  sciences. 
Botany. 
One-half  year  in  freshman  year. 

1  One  unit  represents  daily  exercises  throughout  the  school  year. 


AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      49 

Physiology. 

One-half  year  in  sophomore  year. 
Chemistry. 

One-half  year  in  freshman  year  or  one  year  in  junior  year. 
Physics. 

One  year  in  senior  year. 

NOTE.  —  To  this  may  be  added :   physical  geograpny,  one-half 
year  in  the  freshman  or  the  sophomore  year. 

Suggested  arrangement  of  work  in  agriculture  and  related  sciences. 

First  year 

Farm  mechanics  Botany 

Beginners'  chemistry  where  no  other  chemistry  is  taught. 
Electives  to  make  up  the  required  number  of  units. 

Second  year 

Physical  geography  Physiology 

Plant  husbandry  Plant  husbandry 

Electives  to  make  up  the  required  number  of  units. 

Third  year 

Animal  husbandry  Animal  husbandry 

Chemistry  Agricultural  chemistry 

Electives  to  make  up  the  required  number  of  units. 

Fourth  year 

Soils  Farm  management 

Physics  Physics 

Electives  to  make  up  the  required  number  of  units. 


High  school  course  in  agriculture. 

(Michigan  Agricultural  College,  Agricultural  Education  Depart- 
ment Bui.  i,  pp.  12-13.) 

The  following  course  includes  three  units  which  practically 
conform  to  the  State  High  School  Course  of  Study.    The  high 

£ 


MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


school  work  is  purely  suggestive,  as  it  may  or  may  not  conform  to 
the  regular  course  of  study  pursued  in  the  school.  It  is  given  here 
to  show  the  relation  and  general  arrangement. 

The  course  in  agriculture  is  elective  and  covers  one  unit  in  each 
grade  of  the  high  school  giving  a  four-year  course,  and  the  unit  in 
each  case  is  made  up  of  a  combination  of  two  or  more  subjects 
which  are  to  be  pursued  during  the  year.  This  arrangement  makes 
it  possible  for  regular  students  to  elect  agriculture,  and  for  a  stu- 
dent who  has  already  been  graduated  from  the  high  school,  or  who 
enters  for  the  purpose  of  taking  the  agricultural  work  only,  to 
complete  the  entire  course  in  one  year.  The  purpose  of  this  course 
is  both  educational  and  practical.  It  gives  an  opportunity  for 
the  practical  application  of  the  laws  and  theories  of  other  sciences 
taught  in  the  high  school,  also  a  working  knowledge  of  the  agri- 
cultural subjects  themselves.  This  phase  should  be  constantly 
kept  in  mind  by  the  teacher. 

COURSE 


QTH  GRADE 

IOTH  GRADE 

IITH  GRADE 

i2TH  GRADE 

English 

English 

Literature    and 

Literature  and 

composition 

rhetoric 

Algebra 
Arithmetic 

Geometry 
General 

Physics 
Commercial 

Chemistry 
American  history 

and 

history 

geography 

and  civics 

bookkeeping 

Zoology 

Botany 

Crops  el.  1 

Live  stock, 

Live  stock,  im- 

Soils and  [  | 

types  and     i 

provement, 

i 

tillage  J 

breeds 

feeds  and 

a 

Dairying 

feeding 

Agricultural 

Horticul- 

Soils and  ] 

Poultry 

botany 

ture          i 

soil        j  £ 

Farm  manage- 

Ento- 

physics J 

ment 

mology 

Farm  me- 

i 

chanics 

Farm  machin- 

ery 

AGRICULTURE    IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      51 

NOTE  i.  —  Permit  students  to  take  all  the  agriculture  possible. 

Induce  young  men  to  enter  school  just  for  agriculture  and  take 
the  course  in  one  year. 

NOTE  2. —  This  course  may  be  varied  to  meet  local  conditions. 

Live  stock,  horticulture,  or  soils  may  be  emphasized  according 
to  the  character  of  farming. 

In  the  subject  of  agriculture  there  should  be  at  least  daily 
recitations  for  three  periods  each  week,  the  other  days  being  used 
for  laboratory  work  and  for  study  and  observation  on  the  experi- 
mental plots  or  on  the  farms.  The  number  of  recitations,  however, 
must  be  determined  by  the  conditions  of  the  school,  number  of 
students,  and  number  of  classes.  It  is  probable  that  the  greatest 
value  will  be  derived  from  laboratory  practice  and  from  actual 
study  and  observation  of  surrounding  farms,  therefore  ample 
time  should  be  given  to  it.  It  may  be  necessary  to  give  more  than 
three  recitations  and  less  laboratory  time. 


New  York  State  Education  Department  suggested  Agricultural 
course  for  high  schools. 

(N.  Y.  State  Education  Department  Bui.  492,  "Schools  of  Agri- 
culture, Mechanic  Arts,  and  Home  Making,"  p.  17.) 

CREDITS 
First  year 

English 4 

Algebra 5 

Biology 5 

Mechanical  drawing 3 

Carpentry  and  joinery  (Laboratory  periods) 2 

Total 19" 

Second  year 

English 3 

Plane  geometry 5 

Physics  (agricultural) 2\ 

Agriculture  (elective  —  "home  project"  work,  or  elemen- 
tary general  agriculture) 3 

Agriculture,  cereal  and  forage  crops,  first  term      ....  i\ 

Agriculture,  poultry  raising,  second  term i\ 

Total I8J 


52          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

CREDITS 
Third  year 

English 3 

Elementary  bookkeeping 3 

Chemistry  (agricultural) 2\ 

Economics 2 

History 3 

Agriculture,  animal  husbandry,  first  term 2$ 

Agriculture,  potato  growing,  second  term 2\ 

Total I8j 

Fourth  year 

English  or  commercial  English  and  correspondence   ...  3 

American  history,  with  civics 5 

Agriculture,  general  fruit  growing,  including  apples  ...  5 

Agriculture,  dairying 5 

Total 18 

Two  and  one- half  credits  are  given  for  the  equivalent  of  5  reci- 
tation periods  of  45  minutes  each  of  prepared  work  in  agriculture 
throughout  a  half  year.  Each  laboratory  period  of  90  minutes 
on  unprepared  work  counts  as  one  recitation  period.  Two  labora- 
tory periods  per  week  alternating  with  three  recitation  periods  are 
recommended  for  the  agricultural  courses.  Thirty  credits  for 
special  agricultural  work  are  required  in  the  course  in  vocational 
agriculture. 

E 

Maine  agricultural  course  for  high  schools. 

(Course  in  agriculture  for  high  schools  and  academies  in  Maine, 
prepared  by  W.  D.  Kurd,  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the 
University  of  Maine,  under  the  direction  of  the  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools,  p.  4.) 

First  year 

English 3  hrs. 

Algebra 5  hrs. 

Chemistry 5  hrs. 

Soils,  plant  life,. fertilizers 3  hrs. 

Practicums,  two  afternoon  periods  of 2  hrs.  each 

School  gardening 


AGRICULTURE    IN  THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM       53 

Second  year 

English 3  hrs. 

Geometry 5  hrs. 

History  and  civil  government 5  hrs. 

Live  stock,  dairying,  poultry 3  hrs. 

Practicums,  two  afternoon  periods  of 2  hrs.  each 

School  gardening 

Third  year 

English 3  hrs. 

Physics 5  hrs. 

History 5  hrs. 

Field  crops,  fruit  growing,  vegetable  gardening     .  3  hrs. 

Practicums,  two  afternoon  periods  of 2  hrs.  each 

School  gardening 

Fourth  year 

English 3  hrs. 

Reviews 5  hrs. 

Commercial  arithmetic,  bookkeeping,  etc 3  hrs. 

Agricultural  engineering,  farm  mechanics,  farm  man- 
agement, plantfliseases,  economic  entomology   .     .      5  hrs. 
School  gardening 

NOTE.  —  The  number  of  hours  per  week  in  the  above  course 
of  study  is  not  so  large  as  to  prevent  the  election  of  other  studies 
in  the  high  school  courses. 

F 

Agricultural  course  of  the  Guthrie  County  High  School,  Panora, 

Iowa. 
(Catalogue.) 

Freshman  year 

Arithmetic,  algebra,  American  history,  civics,  English  grammar 
and  composition,  literature,  Latin. 

Sophomore  year 

First  semester  Second  semester 

Algebra  Algebra 

English  English 

Ancient  history  Mediaeval  and  modern  history 


54          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

Animal  husbandry  Animal  husbandry 

Feeds  and  feeding  Agronomy 

Bookkeeping 

Junior  year 

First  semester  Second  semester 
Plane  geometry  Plane  geometry 

German  German 

Physics  Physics 

Geology  Geology 

Farm  mechanics  Farm  mechanics 

Senior  year 

First  semester  Second  semester 

Solid  geometry  German 

German  English 

Political  economy  Chemistry 

Soils  Soils 

Horticulture 
Advanced  arithmetic 


Kern  county  (Bakersfield,   California)   high  school  agricultural 

course. 
(Catalogue.) 

Freshman  year 
English 
Algebra 

Elementary  science 
Music  or  letter  writing 
Drawing 
Shop 


AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      55 

Sophomore  year 
English 
Geometry 
Chemistry 
Arithmetic 

Music  or  letter  writing 
Drawing 
Shop 

Junior  year 
English 

Advanced  algebra 
Trigonometry 
Applied  science 
Qual.  analysis 
Agriculture 

Senior  year 
English 
U.  S.  history 
Quant,  analysis 
Surveying 
Agriculture 

Special  one-year  course  in  agriculture 

English 

Shop  mathematics 
Shop  drawing 
Agriculture  and  shop 

The  special  course  includes  approximately  450  hours  of  work  in 
drawing,  carpentry,  and  blacksmithing,  and  630  hours  of  agricul- 
ture, including  botany,  horticulture,  animal  husbandry,  soils, 
and  crops.  One  hour  daily  is  given  to  each  of  the  following :  shop 


56          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

mathematics  and  English,  elementary  chemistry  (including  soil 
analysis).    This  course  is  for  pupils  over  18  years  of  age. 


Gardena  (California)  agricultural  high  school  course  in  agricul- 
ture. 
(Catalogue,  and  Gardena  "Reporter.") 

UNITS  OR 
CREDITS 
First  year 

General  science  and  gardening 5 

English 5 

Algebra  or  applied  mathematics  (practical  arithmetic)     .     .       5 

Carpentry  and  drawing 5 

Music  or  oral  English 2 


Second  year 

Agricultural  botany 5 

English  or  foreign  language 5 

Economic  zoology.    Animal  industry.     Economic  entomol- 
ogy        5 

Forge  and  mechanical  drawing 5 

Music  or  oral  English 2 


Third  year 

Agricultural  chemistry >  5 

Horticulture  and  forestry \  5 

Dairying  and  poultry 5 

Elective  (English,  foreign  language,  mathematics,  cabinet 

work) 5 

Fourth  year 

Agricultural  physics 5 

Soils   and  fertilizers.      Farm  crops   and    farm   manage- 
ment     5 

Rural  law  and  economics 2 

Bookkeeping  and  farm  accounts 3 

Landscape  gardening  and  greenhouse  management    ...  3 

Civics  and  history 5 

Special  problems 2 


AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL  CURRICULUM      57 


Holtville  (California)  union  high  school  agricultural  course. 
(Catalogue.) 

First  year 

*  English 

*  Elementary  algebra 

*  Physical  geography 

Manual  training  (either  one-half  or  a  full  year) 
Freehand  drawing  (one-half  year) 
Second  year 

*  English 

*  Applied  botany 

Manual  training  (either  one-half  or  a  full  year) 
Freehand  drawing  (one-half  year) 
Third  year 

*  Agriculture 
Chemistry 
Physiology 
Manual  training 
English 

Fourth  year 

*  Agriculture 

*  Physics 

*  United  States  history  and  civics 
English 

Manual  training 

*  Those  subjects  starred  are  required  ;  the  rest  are  elective. 
Other  electives  are  also  allowed  in  penmanship,  orchestra,  singing, 
and  athletics. 


Coin  (Iowa)  high  school  course  in  agriculture. 

(Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Annual  Report,  1910,  pp.  367-369.) 


58          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

FIRST  YEAR 

Farm  crops.  —  Corn,  seed  corn,  oats,  wheat,  potatoes,  sweet 
potatoes,  sorghum,  sugar  beets. 

Legumes.  —  Alfalfa,  red  clover,  white  clover,  alsike  clover, 
mammoth  clover,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  and  vetch. 

Grasses.  —  Kentucky  blue  grass,  timothy,  redtop,  and  orchard 
grass. 

Silos.  —  Historical,  form  and  construction,  cost,  selection  and 
culture  of  silage  crops,  filling  the  silo,  composition  and  feeding 
value  of  silage. 

Weeds.  —  Identification  of  the  neighborhood  weeds  by  means  of 
seeds,  stems,  and  leaves.  Habits  of  growth  and  methods  of  erad- 
ication. State  ways  in  which  weeds  are  an  injury  to  the  farmer. 
Name  not  less  than  five  of  the  worst  weeds,  and  state  why.  Clas- 
sify weeds  as  to  habits  of  growth ;  also  as  to  annuals,  biennials, 
and  perennials. 

Collect  seeds  from  all  weeds,  vegetables,  fruits,  nuts,  and  flowers 
in  the  neighborhood.  Put  them  into  envelopes  or  bottles  and 
label  each  with  date,  name  of  plant,  where  found,  and  name  of 
collector. 

Problems  on  yield,  on  amount  of  the  three  principal  food  ele- 
ments needed  to  replace  that  taken  by  different  crops,  on  fencing 
fields  of  different  sizes,  on  number  of  bushels  of  corn  in  different 
size  cribs,  or  bins,  etc. 

Soil  formation.  —  Mechanical  agencies,  the  chemical  action  of 
air  and  water,  plants  and  animals  as  soil  formers  and  improvers, 
soil  materials,  light  and  heavy  soils,  physical  characteristics  of 
soils,  moisture  relations  of  soils,  heat  relation  of  soils,  soil  tempera- 
ture affected  by  color  and  drainage,  chemical  characteristics  of 
soils. 

Experiments  in  the  laboratory  and  on  plats  to  determine  the 
water-holding  powers  of  different  soils,  experiments  to  demon- 
strate the  capillary  movements  of  water  in  soils  under  different 


AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM       59 

conditions,  experiments  to  show  the  different  methods  of  conserv- 
ing soil  moisture,  experiments  to  determine  whether  compact  soils 
will  hold  more  water  than  loose  soils,  experiments  to  determine 
how  organic  matter  in  the  soil  affects  its  water-holding  power. 

SECOND  YEAR 

Horticulture.  —  The  plant :  propagation  of  plants  —  by  means 
of  seeds,  by  cuttings,  by  layering,  by  grafting,  by  budding,  by 
bulbs,  rootstalks,  stolons,  and  corms. 

Pruning  of  common  fruit,  shade,  and  ornamental  trees  of  dif- 
ferent ages ;  grafting  of  apple,  peach,  pear,  etc. ;  budding  peach 
seedlings.  Note  how  fruits  fertilize.  The  proper  way  to  plant  a 
tree  and  its  subsequent  care.  Identification  of  neighborhood  trees 
and  shrubs.  The  most  troublesome  insect  and  fungus  enemies 
of  fruit  and  ornamental  trees  and  their  destruction  by  spraying 
and  otherwise.  Special  work  in  making  and  the  application  of 
spraying  mixtures. 

The  fruit  garden,  the  vegetable  garden,  the  school  garden. 

Study  of  roots,  stems,  and  leaves.  The  preparation  and  use  of 
hotbeds,  coldframes,  and  pits. 

Fruit  growing.  —  The  apple,  peach,  pear,  strawberry,  rasp- 
berry, blackberry,  currant,  and  gooseberry.  Define  the  terms 
seedlings,  stock,  scion,  standards,  dwarfs,  freestone,  etc. 

Soil  fertility.  —  Improvement  by  drainage,  tillage,  manures, 
fertilizers,  lime,  humus,  green  manuring,  legumes,  and  rotation 
of  crops. 

Root  tubercles  and  inoculation,  sources  of  nitrogen,  sources  of 
phosphorus,  sources  of  potassium,  practical  methods  of  main- 
taining fertility. 

Testing  soils  for  acid  conditions,  pot  experiments  in  growth  of 
plants  by  adding  the  different  elements  of  plant  food,  also  the  same 
on  field  plats. 

Comparisons  made  of  crops  grown  on  fields  of  different  degrees 
of  fertility,  also  comparative  yields  of  the  neighborhood. 


60          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

Problems  based  upon  the  amount  of  plant  food  taken  out  of  the 
soil  each  year  by  the  different  crops  given.  These  problems  should 
also  show  when  to  grow  shallow  or  deep-rooted  crops. 

THIRD  YEAR 

Animal  husbandry.  —  Cattle :  beef  breeds,  dual-purpose  breeds, 
and  dairy  breeds. 

M ilk.  —  Composition  and  characteristics,  bacteria,  how  milk 
becomes  impure  and  methods  of  prevention,  use  of  the  Babcock 
test,  cream  separators  —  care  and  management,  management  and 
delivery  of  cream,  butter  making,  cheese  making,  renovated  or 
process  butter  and  how  to  distinguish  same  from  genuine  butter. 

Testing  of  individual  cows.  —  Study  feeding  practices  of  the 
neighborhood.  Different  cuts  of  meats  —  their  location  in  the 
carcass  and  value  for  food. 

Horses.  —  Breeds  valuable  for  speed,  draft  horses,  carriage  and 
coach  breeds,  ponies,  mules. 

Sheep.  —  Short-wooled  breeds,  middle-wooled  breeds,  long- 
wooled  breeds. 

Swine.  —  Large  breeds,  middle  breeds,  small  breeds. 

Poultry.  —  General  purpose  breeds,  meat  or  table  breeds,  egg 
breeds,  ornamental  breeds,  turkeys,  ducks,  and  geese,  guinea 
fowl,  squab  raising. 

Breeds  and  characteristics  of  farm  animals  to  be  carried  through 
the  year.  Identification  of  breeds,  judging  market  types  of  live 
stock,  studies  of  local  live  stock  interests,  the  elements  of  animal 
nutrition,  —  protein,  carbohydrates,  minerals,  etc. 

Feeding  standards  and  balanced  rations. 

The  common  ailments  of  farm  animals  —  symptoms  and 
methods  of  prevention  or  treatment. 

FOURTH  YEAR 

The  farm  home,  buildings,  and  surroundings.  — •  Location  of 
buildings,  plan  of  house,  cost  and  construction,  modern  conven- 


AGRICULTURE   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      6l 

iences.  Barns  and  outbuildings,  location,  plans,  cost,  and  construc- 
tion, sanitary  drainage  and  sewerage,  disinfection,  sources  and 
supply  of  pure  water.  The  lawn,  walks,  and  drives.  Selection 
and  planting  of  flowers,  shrubs,  and  trees.  Cultural  suggestions. 

Equipment  of  houses  and  barns  with  heat,  light,  motor  power, 
water  pressure,  ventilating  and  cleaning  devices,  and  other  ma- 
chinery. 

Farm  mechanics.  —  Cement  construction.  Walks,  basement, 
stable  floors,  and  driveways,  steps,  tanks,  small  bridges,  sewer 
pipe,  drain  tile,  and  reinforcement.  Silo  construction.  Tools 
and  leveling  for  drives.  Location  of  tile  and  sewer  drains.  Con- 
struction. 

Farm  machinery.  —  A  study  of  the  elements  of  mechanics  and  of 
machine  design  entering  into  the  construction  of  all  machinery, 
followed  by  a  special  study  of  motors,  including  gasoline  and  steam 
engines,  steam  boilers,  power  transmission,  windmills,  water  wheels, 
pumps,  hydraulic  rams,  farm  machinery  for  tillage,  seeding,  har- 
vesting, etc. 

Roads.  —  Macadam,  sand-clay,  burnt-clay.  Methods  and  cost 
of  construction,  management,  and  care.  Road  drags. 

Beekeeping.  —  Location,  what  race  to  choose,  what  hive  to  adopt, 
management  in  swarming,  how  to  avoid  stings,  prevention  of 
swarming,  how  to  obtain  surplus  honey  and  wax,  wintering,  risk 
and  loss  through  disease  and  enemies,  beneficial  effects  in  pollen- 
ization. 

Forestry.  —  Forestry  and  farm  designing.  The  need  of  forest 
planting,  a  planting  plan,  trees,  and  methods  recommended. 
Special  features  about  the  farmstead.  The  life  of  a  tree,  the  life 
of  a  forest,  enemies  of  the  forest. 

Recitations  on  the  history,  production,  and  marketing  of  cereal 
crops,  potatoes,  field  beans,  forage,  and  miscellaneous  crops. 

Recitations  on  elementary  farm  accounting,  selection  and 
purchase  of  farms,  cost  and  relative  profit  of  various  farm  opera- 
tions and  systems  of  farming. 


62 


MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


Agricultural  course  for  high  schools.' 

(Western  State  Normal  School  (Hays,  Kansas)  Bui.  v,  2,  No.  3, 
1910,  "Educational  Agriculture,"  p.  25  and  p.  33.) 

Charts  prepared  by  Josiah  Main,  of  the  Western  State  Normal, 
Hays,  Kansas.  Agriculture  taught  as  applied  science  for  the  first 
three  years  of  the  high  school;  as  a  separate  course  in  general 
agriculture  the  last  year. 

Chart  I  shows  the  relation  of  age,  development,  grade,  and  edu- 
cational purpose,  with  agriculture  projected  below  so  as  to  show 
the  corresponding  development  of  the  subject. 

CHART  I 


Age     .     . 

6  7 

8  9  10  ii  12 

13  H 

15  16  17  18 

Grade       . 

III 

Primary 

III  IV  V  VI  VII 

Intermediate 

VIII 

Grammar 

IX  XXI  XII 

High  school 

Stage 

Transi- 
tion 

Formative 

Adolescent 

Educa- 
tional 
purpose 

Environ- 
mental 
equilib- 
rium 

Experiences, 
facts,  utilities, 
habits 

Principles,  system, 
science,  ideals 

PHASE  OF 
SUBJECT 

NATURE  STUDY,  SCHOOL  GAR- 
DEN, INCIDENTAL  AGRICULTURE 

LOCAL 
AGRICULTURE 

ANALYTIC 
AGR. 
SCIENCE 

SYNTHETIC 
AGR. 

Genetic 
relation 

Past 

Present 

Future-present 

Character 

Cultural 

Economic 

Scientific-econ. 

AGRICULTURE    IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   CURRICULUM      63 


CHART  II 

The  high  school  course  in  science  and  agriculture.  (Only  the 
course  as  planned  for  the  agricultural  student  is  shown  here,  though 
much  of  it  is  in  common  with  the  regular  science  course.) 


IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

The  fundamental  sciences  taught  with 
an  economic  application  and  by 
means  of  agricultural  materials. 
Analytic  and  unorganized  with  re- 
gard to  agriculture.  Organized 
from  the  aspect  of  the  fundamental 
sciences. 

Agriculture  and  science  students  in  the 
same  science  classes. 


^APPLIED  SCIENCE 

Elementary 
Physics,  r 
Geography 

Botany 

Biology, 
Chemistry 

GENERAL  AGRICULTURE 

Soils 

Economic 

Economic 

Zootechny 

Mechanics 

plants 

insects 

Specialization,  diversifica- 

Tillage 

Field  crops 

Diseases 

tion,  rotation 

Weather 

Horti- 

Fertility 

Farm  equipment 

culture 

Foods  and 

Comparative     agriculture 

rations 

Improvement  by  selection 

Rural  economics 

The  subject  of  agricul- 
ture organized  as  a 
science,  —  including 
materials  treated  ana- 
lytically the  previous 
three  years. 

Vocational  ideals  incul- 
cated. Science  work 
continued  independ- 
ently. 


Formal  and  extra-program  agriculture  (vocational  electives). 
Farm  animals,  manual  and  technical  arts,  assumed  services, 
home  projects. 

PRACTICUM 

Outline  a  four-year  course  in  agriculture  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  a  high  school  in  any  chosen  town  of  your 
own  State.  Note  size  of  town  and  approximate  number 
of  pupils  in  the  high  school.  Give  reasons  for  your 


64          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

selection  of  each  agricultural  course  and  for  the  place 
chosen  for  it  in  the  curriculum.  Explain  your  choice 
of  subjects  other  than  agriculture  to  be  included  in  the 
complete  four-year  course. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

BRICKER,  G.  A.  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  High  School. 
Chapter  7.  N.  Y.  Macmillan.  1911. 

ELLIS,  A.  C.  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  Public  Schools. 
University  of  Texas  Bui.  No.  85,  Gen.  Ser.  No.  15.  1906. 

HATCH,  K.  L.  High  School  Course  in  Agriculture.  University 
of  Wisconsin  Bui.  No.  441,  High  School  Ser.  No.  12.  1911. 

MAIN,  JOSIAH.  Educational  Agriculture.  Part  2.  Western 
State  Normal  School  (Hays,  Kansas)  Bui.,  vol.  2,  No.  3.  1910. 

Organization  of  High  School  Courses  of  Study.  National  Edu- 
cation Association,  Proceedings,  1911,  pp.  1138-1152. 
Report  of  Committee  on  Courses  of  Study  in  Agriculture. 

ROBISON,  C.  H.  Agricultural  Instruction  in  the  Public  High 
Schools  of  the  United  States.  (See  index  under  curriculum.) 
N.  Y.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University.  1911. 

TRUE,  A.  C.  Secondary  Courses  in  Agriculture.  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations  Cir.  49.  1902. 


CHAPTER  IV 

TEACHING  METHODS   TO   BE   EMPLOYED 

THE  success  of  agriculture  as  a  subject  of  study  is 
naturally  determined  largely  by  the  character  of  the 
teachers  giving  the  work  and  by  the  methods  employed. 
If  agriculture  is  to  be  taught  successfully  in  the  high 
school  it  must  be  taught  by  one  who  has  received  special 
training  in  the  science  and  art  of  agriculture,  and  in 
teaching  methods.  He  must  know  his  subject  as  thor- 
oughly as  the  teacher  of  history  or  mathematics  knows 
his ;  and  he  must  know  not  only  the  facts  but  also  the 
best  means  and  methods  of  presenting  them.  He  must, 
moreover,  keep  clearly  in  mind  throughout  the  work  that 
there  are  several  aims  to  be  striven  for  in  his  teaching, 
in  addition  to  that  of  giving  agricultural  information. 
He  must  keep  each  of  these  aims  in  mind  in  giving  the 
work.  It  should  be  his  purpose  to  give  not  only  knowl- 
edge but  efficiency  in  its  use ;  to  awaken  in  pupils  high 
ideals  of  country  life  and  sympathy  and  appreciation  for 
the  animal,  plant,  and  physical  world  which  so  largely 
makes  up  our  environment.  He  must,  in  addition, 
more  perhaps  than  any  other  high  school  teacher,  give 
attention  to  the  special  needs  of  his  school,  its  pupils, 
p  65 


66          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

and  the  community.  He  should  have  an  intimate  under- 
standing of  the  agricultural  interests  and  needs  of  the 
surrounding  district  and  a  genuine  interest  in  all  that 
tends  toward  the  welfare  and  agricultural  prosperity 
of  its  people. 

Pupils  taking  the  work  of  the  agricultural  course  of 
the  high  school  should  acquire  not  only  information, 
but  the  ability  to  apply  the  knowledge  acquired.  In 
addition,  they  should,  at  this  formative  period  of  their 
lives,  acquire  good  habits  with  regard  not  only  to  farm 
life  and  work,  but  to  natural  phenomena  wherever  found. 
The  high  school  agricultural  work  should  give  pupils 
information,  the  ability  to  do  certain  things,  and  prac- 
tice in  doing  them.  Not  less  important,  it  should 
leave  with  them  right  points  of  view  as  to  agricultural 
facts,  principles,  and  the  occupation  itself,  and  high 
ideals  of  accuracy,  order,  persistence,  investigation, 
etc.1 

That  we  may  better  understand  the  methods  of  se- 
curing these  results  from  the  agricultural  work,  we  may 
well  review  briefly  the  ways  in  which  knowledge  and 
training  are  acquired  by  the  high  school  pupil,  ways 
which  should  be  kept  in  mind  by  the  teacher  in  pre- 
senting any  subject  of  study.2  We  may  then  take  up 

1  Bricker,  G.  A.,  "Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  High  School," 
pp.  133-138- 

2  De  Garmo,  C.,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education;    Processes  of 
Instruction." 


TEACHING  METHODS   TO   BE   EMPLOYED  67 

these  ways  and  means  as  they  relate  particularly  to  the 
agricultural  work. 

Outside  of  school  a  knowledge  of  facts  is,  as  we  know, 
acquired  by  first-hand  observation  and  experiment  or 
from  authoritative  sources  through  print  or  by  word 
of  mouth.  Both  methods  are  employed  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge  in  the  school.  The  pupil  gains  in- 
formation from  the  teacher  by  word  of  mouth  in  the 
classroom  lecture,  the  discussion,  etc. ;  from  the 
printed  page  of  his  text  and  reference  books ;  and  through 
experiment  or  observation  in  the  laboratory  or  else- 
where. 

However,  on  account  of  the  limited  amount  of  time 
which  the  pupil  spends  in  the  school  and  the  vast 
amount  of  knowledge  to  be  acquired  within  a  compara- 
tively short  period,  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  major 
part  of  the  knowledge  gained  to  come  at  second  hand, 
from  the  teacher  or  the  textbook.  Though  this  is 
necessary  to  a  certain  extent,  it  is  desirable  to  increase, 
so  far  as  is  possible,  the  amount  of  knowledge  acquired 
at  first  hand ;  for  the  acquisition  of  an  undue  proportion 
of  knowledge  of  a  subject  "by  authority"  tends  toward 
vagueness  in  and  lack  of  understanding  of  the  facts 
gained,  accompanied  by  more  or  less  indifference  toward 
the  subject  itself.  There  should  be,  wherever  possible, 
not  only  acquisition  of  knowledge  by  personal  observa- 
tion and  tests,  but  verification  of  facts  received  by  au- 


68          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

thority  in  the  same  way.  In  this  way  there  is  not  only 
greater  certitude  of  the  truth  of  the  knowledge  gained, 
but  greater  vividness  in  its  impression  upon  the  mind. 

This  last  point  is,  of  especial  importance  in  the  case 
of  the  high  school  pupil,  since  he  goes  over  such  a  multi- 
tude of  facts  in  his  studies  during  a  comparatively  short 
period.  If  the  facts  are  not  vividly  impressed  upon  his 
mind,  they  are  likely  to  be  but  imperfectly  understood  and 
temporarily  retained.  As  a  result,  his  interest  in  the  en- 
tire subject  of  study  to  which  they  are  related  is  lessened. 

The  teacher  must  provide,  then,  for  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge  by  the  pupil  through  authoritative  sources 
and  by  personal  observation.  Having  done  this,  he 
must  teach  the  pupil  how  to  observe.  The  high  school 
pupil  is  immature  and  untrained  and  his  observations 
apt  to  be  very  inaccurate  and  incomplete.  He  must  be 
taught  how  to  observe  fully  and  accurately  and  must 
be  led  to  see  the  relations  of  the  thing  observed  to  other 
things.  There  must  be  sense  impression,  followed  by 
right  inferences.  Without  both  we  cannot  properly 
observe.  An  unbalanced  admixture  of  inference  with 
sense  impression  always  results  in  poor  observation.  "  If 
we  infer  too  much,  we  think  we  perceive  what  is  not  true ; 
if  we  infer  too  little,  we  are  of  those  who,  '  having  eyes, 
see  not/  " 1 

1  De  Garmo,  C.,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education;  the  Processes 
of  Instruction,"  p.  9. 


TEACHING  METHODS  TO  BE  EMPLOYED      69 

Yet,  though  much  useful  knowledge  can  be  acquired 
by  the  student  by  observation,  there  are  many  natural 
phenomena  in  which  observation  alone,  even  when  aided 
by  the  use  of  scientific  instruments,  such  as  the  micro- 
scope, dissecting  tools,  etc.,  does  not  enable  him  to  dis- 
cover facts  and  their  relations.  This  is  because  the  phe- 
nomena under  observation  are  so  complicated  with  others 
that  the  observer  is  unable  to  interpret  them  simply 
through  his  observations.  Experiment  therefore  be- 
comes necessary,  —  that  is,  the  observation  of  the  phe- 
nomena in  question  under  varying  and  controlled  condi- 
tions. Though  the  facts  to  be  discovered  by  the  high 
school  pupil  in  his  experiments  are  already  known  to 
his  teacher  and  to  many  others,  and  are  probably  printed 
in  many  forms,  yet  it  is  desirable,  and  indeed  necessary, 
that  he  should  gain  a  knowledge  of  some  facts  in  this 
way  as  well  as  by  authority  and  observation.  For 
he  thus  not  only  intensifies  his  knowledge,  but  also  lays 
the  foundation  for  scientific  methods  of  investigation 
in  his  later  school  studies  or  life  work.  By  his  observa- 
tions and  experiments  thought  is  stimulated,  the  desire 
to  know  is  increased,  and  personal  initiative  is  encouraged. 

The  high  school  pupil  acquires  knowledge  of  facts, 
then,  by  authority,  by  observation,  and  by  experimenta- 
tion. To  what  extent  and  in  what  way  each  means  shall 
be  employed  in  a  given  study  depends,  in  the  high  school, 
upon  the  period  of  development  of  the  pupil  (the  adoles- 


70          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

cent),  the  nature  of  the  study,  the  amount  of  time  given 
to  the  subject,  the  amount  of  knowledge  to  be  acquired 
during  that  time,  the  degree  of  efficiency  desired  in  its 
use,  and  the  equipment  of  the  school. 

But  though  the  provision  of  suitable  means  for  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  by  the  pupil  is  an  important 
step  in  instruction,  it  is  but  a  part  of  the  work.  The 
teacher  must  next  lead  pupils  to  an  understanding  of 
the  facts  acquired,  through  the  processes  of  reasoning ; 
and  he  must  provide  for  the  development  of  efficiency 
in  the  use  of  the  knowledge  gained,  through  practice 
in  doing.  He  must  give  the  pupil  facts ;  he  must  teach 
him  to  think;  and  he  must  train  him  to  do.  Having 
selected  materials  for  knowledge  and  provided  means 
for  their  acquisition,  the  teacher  must,  by  leading  the 
student  along  the  paths  of  induction  and  deduction, 
arouse  and  exercise  and  train  his  mind  so  that  it  shall 
serve  him  well  not  only  in  present  but  in  future  need. 
Yet  he  must  not  forget  that  to  know  and  to  think  are  not 
all  of  education  or  of  life.  The  student  must  gain  the 
ability  to  do.  He  must  have  practice  in  applying  his 
knowledge ;  his  information  must  be  made  to  apply 
to  concrete  things,  to  solve  definite  problems.  He  must 
gain  skill  in  using  his  knowledge  under  different  circum- 
stances and  in  many  instances. 

Having  now  reviewed  the  different  ways  in  which 
knowledge  and  training  are  acquired  by  high  school 


TEACHING  METHODS  TO  BE  EMPLOYED      71 

pupils,  we  may  next  consider  in  some  detail  the  use  of 
these  in  agricultural  instruction. 

Through  the  agricultural  textbook,  the  lecture,  and  the 
agricultural  library  the  student  gains  knowledge  from 
supposedly  authoritative  sources;  on  the  field  trip,  in 
the  laboratory,  and  on  the  school  farm  he  gains  much 
additional  knowledge  by  observation  and  by  experiment ; 
and  in  the  laboratory  and  through  the  field  work  of  the 
school  farm  or  through  agricultural  work  at  home,  he 
is  given  practice  in  doing,  resulting  finally  in  skill. 

Each  of  these  factors  in  his  acquisition  of  agricultural 
knowledge  we  shall  discuss  briefly,  and,  in  addition,  we 
shall  make  note  of  certain  special  agencies  which  have  been 
found  efficient  as  aids  in  high  school  work  in  agriculture. 

To  save  time  and  effort,  it  is  considered  desirable  in 
most  high  school  courses  to  use  a  textbook  as  a  basis 
for  instruction.  But  there  are  few,  if  any,  really  satis- 
factory textbooks  for  high  school  agriculture  in  exis- 
tence. What  texts  we  have  are  nearly  all  general  in 
nature,  covering  a  one-year  course  treating  of  a  vast 
number  of  farm  topics.  Such  books  include  both  too 
much  and  too  little.  Their  authors  seem  to  have  made 
the  effort  to  cover,  in  a  single  volume,  the  agriculture 
of  the  world,  from  cotton  growing  to  landscape  gardening. 
All  the  materials  included  are  necessarily,  therefore, 
treated  in  a  very  elementary  way  or  insufficiently  ex- 
plained; and  frequently  a  large  part  of  the  book  deals 


72          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

with  crops  and  conditions  of  little  or  no  interest  in  the 
particular  community  where  agriculture  is  being  taught 
in  the  high  school.  Others  of  these  general  agricultural 
books,  advertised  and  used  as  high  school  texts,  are  really 
suitable  only  for  the  upper  grades.  Instead  of  helping  gain 
the  pupil's  attention  and  interest  they  only  too  frequently 
prejudice  him  against  agricultural  work  and  give  him  the 
idea  that  it  is  not  a  subject  worth  study.  Still  others, 
though  perhaps  having  certain  merits  as  to  the  mate- 
rials included,  are  carelessly  written  and  poorly  arranged. 
There  is  little  use  in  the  high  school  for  a  general  one- 
year  agricultural  course  which  treats  of  all  farm  subjects, 
—  crops,  animals,  products,  etc.  Such  a  course  is  almost 
inevitably  a  mere  hodge-podge  of  agricultural  facts  of 
more  or  less  importance,  giving  but  little  valuable  train- 
ing or  skill  in  the  application  of  knowledge.1  Therefore, 
we  do  not  need  or  want,  for  the  regular  agricultural 
work  of  the  high  school,  the  kind  of  agricultural  text- 
book which  is  universal  in  character,  including  all  farm 
topics  in  one  volume.2  We  do  need  well  written,  care- 

1  However,  in  a  few  schools  where  a  general  survey  of  agriculture  as  a 
fundamental  industry  is  all  that  it  seems  advisable  to  give  on  account  of 
the  greater  local  importance  of  other  industries,  such  a  course  may  prove 
desirable,  provided  no  college  entrance  credit  is  expected  or  given  for  it. 
But  if  the  work  is  to  be  of  any  value  it  must  be  very  carefully  selected 
and  limited. 

2  Such  a  book,  with  materials  carefully  selected  and  arranged,  may, 
however,  prove  useful  under  the  special  circumstances  mentioned  under 
note  i. 


TEACHING  METHODS   TO   BE   EMPLOYED  73 

fully  arranged  textbooks,  adapted  to  the  comprehension 
of  high  school  pupils,  on  each  of  the  subjects  of  a  well- 
organized  course  in  secondary  agriculture,  —  as  agron- 
omy or  beginning  agriculture,  dairy  work,  horticulture, 
etc.  In  each  of  these  the  fundamental  facts  and  prin- 
ciples of  the  subject  written  about  should  be  as  scien- 
tifically treated  and  their  explanation  as  clearly  and  logi- 
cally expressed  as  is  the  case  in  the  best  secondary 
textbooks  of  the  other  sciences  now  commonly  taught 
in  the  high  school. 

Unfortunately,  there  is  at  present,  as  has  been  said, 
a  great  dearth  both  of  suitable  texts  and  of  laboratory 
manuals.  There  are,  to  be  sure,  one  or  two  fairly  satis- 
factory texts  in  dairying ;  but  for  high  school  horticul- 
ture, farm  management,  etc.,  there  is  nothing.  As  a 
result,  teachers  are  sometimes  found  using  as  high  school 
texts  books  totally  unsuited  to  the  work  they  are  trying 
to  do.  Elementary  botanies  are  used  in  place  of  a  be- 
ginning agriculture  or  agronomy  text.  Textbooks  suit- 
able only  for  the  use  of  college  students  are  used  in  farm 
management  and  other  special  agricultural  courses. 
Naturally,  the  results  are  almost  inevitably  unsatisfac- 
tory. Rather  than  use  a  poor  text,  the  instructor  should 
get  along  with  none,  utilizing  the  classroom  lecture  and 
reading  references  to  agricultural  books  and  bulletins 
in  place  of  this  means  of  acquiring  knowledge. 

And  even  though  there  may  be  a  satisfactory  text 


74          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

which  is  used,  the  classroom  talk  or  lecture  and  the 
agricultural  library  (see  Chapter  V)  must  be  resorted  to 
to  supplement  the  text.  For  no  high  school  agricultural 
text  can  be  expected  to  contain  the  precise  materials 
which  will  be  advisable  for  all  schools,  wherever  located.1 
Moreover,  the  good  instructor  will  find  it  necessary  to 
give  frequent  references  to  such  books  and  bulletins 
of  the  agricultural  library  as  deal  with  the  topics  taken 
up  by  the  class,  not  only  to  supplement  the  work  of 
the  textbook,  but  to  familiarize  the  pupil  with  the 
best  in  agricultural  literature  and  to  accustom  him  to 
using  it. 

The  lecture  should  be  utilized  by  the  teacher  to  give 
to  his  pupils  information  on  topics  which  seem  insuffi- 
ciently treated  in  the  text,  on  additional  topics  which 
seem  especially  important  locally,  and  to  sum  up  or 
explain  agricultural  facts  not  given  in  any  available 
book  or  bulletin  in  form  suitable  for  the  comprehension 
of  his  pupils.  Logically  arranged,  clearly  expressed 
classroom  talks  or  lectures,  illustrated  whenever  possible 
by  objects,  demonstrations,  lantern  pictures,  etc.,  may  be 
made  a  most  fruitful  and  pleasant  source  of  knowledge 
for  the  student,  —  summing  up,  explaining,  emphasizing, 

1  This  is  true  because  of  the  nature  of  the  subject.  A  carefully  written 
elementary  text  in  one  of  the  pure  sciences  may  be  equally  suited,  ex- 
actly as  it  is,  to  almost  all  high  schools.  The  agricultural  text,  treating 
largely  of  applied  science,  cannot  be  so  universally  satisfactory  in  the 
materials  and  practicums  included. 


TEACHING  METHODS  TO  BE  EMPLOYED      75 

and  vivifying  the  work  of  the  course,  and  inspiring  the 
student  with  interest  and  enthusiasm. 

Accompanying  the  textbook,  lecture,  and  agricultural 
library  work  must  come  appropriate  laboratory  work, 
field  trips  or  excursions,  and  practice  work  on  the  school 
farm  or  at  home.  Through  these  the  principles  or  facts 
studied  can  be  observed,  tested,  or  put  in  practice. 

In  the  laboratory,  exercises  may  be  performed  by  which 
the  student  discovers  for  himself  some  agricultural 
truth  or  verifies  a  statement  read  or  heard.  Or  the  pupil 
may  observe  demonstrations  or  experiments  performed 
by  the  teacher  before  the  class  to  teach  definite  principles. 
All  of  these  should  not  only  be  closely  and  accurately 
observed  by  the  pupil,  but  they  should  be  carefully  re- 
corded. By  this  means  not  only  are  the  things  observed 
fixed  firmly  in  mind,  but,  most  important  of  all,  the  abil- 
ity to  observe  completely  and  accurately  is  gradually 
formed.  Moreover,  in  these  records  there  is  provided 
incentive  and  material  for  reflection  on  the  relations  of 
the  things  observed  to  other  things,  and  by  such  records 
further  observation  is  stimulated. 

As  has  been  said,  we  have  as  yet  almost  no  laboratory 
manuals  suited  to  high  school  agricultural  work,  and  but 
few  good  exercises  have  been  formulated  and  printed 
in  textbooks  or  bulletins.  This  is  not  because  there  is 
a  dearth  of  material,  for  the  opposite  is  the  case,  but 
because  little  study  has  been  given  to  the  working  out 


76          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

of  clear,  concise,  and  logical  series  of  practicums.  These 
will  doubtless  come  in  time,  as  better  textbooks  will  come. 
Indeed,  the  lack  of  good  textbooks  probably  largely 
explains  the  lack  of  series  of  good  laboratory  exercises. 
For  laboratory  exercises  are  designed  to  accompany  and 
explain  and  emphasize  the  various  topics  of  a  subject 
as  taken  up  in  a  textbook  or  by  the  teacher  in  lectures. 
Where  there  is  no  text,  and  the  outlining  of  each  course  is 
still  largely  a  matter  of  individual  option,  the  scarcity 
of  logical  series  of  practicums  is  natural.  The  task 
of  providing  them  falls,  then,  to  the  individual  teacher 
as  he  works  out  the  special  course  to  be  given ;  and  only 
too  frequently  lack  of  time  and  inadequacy  of  equip- 
ment are  felt  by  him  to  be  sufficient  excuse  for  allowing 
this  phase  of  his  work  to  be  very  inferior.  Every  agri- 
cultural teacher  should  make  a  special  effort  to  bring 
this  feature  of  each  of  his  courses  up  to  the  mark  of  its 
full  usefulness.  He  should  see  to  it  that  the  agricultural 
laboratory  is  as  completely  equipped  (according  to  its 
needs)  as  any  other  science  laboratory;  and  he  should 
secure  from  all  available  sources,  or  work  out  himself 
for  his  class,  laboratory  practicums  to  accompany  and 
elucidate  the  work  of  the  classroom. 

But  though  the  laboratory  is  a  very  important  source 
of  information  for  the  pupil,  the  agricultural  teacher 
should  not  forget  that  probably  the  most  valuable  il- 
lustrative material  which  he  can  use  is  to  be  found  in  the 


TEACHING   METHODS    TO   BE   EMPLOYED  77 

community  surrounding  his  school.  He  should  use  not 
only  the  school  equipment  in  the  way  of  books,  appa- 
ratus, and  grounds,  but  he  should  draw  as  much  as  is  profit- 
able from  the  surrounding  community.  Field  trips  or  ex- 
cursions should  be  made  by  classes  to  near-by  farms  to 
observe  farm  operations,  to  see  and  to  study  farm  stock, 
and  to  observe  the  growing  of  crops  under  different  con- 
ditions. There  pupils  may  observe  agricultural  facts 
and  see  agricultural  principles  demonstrated.  Through 
their  observations  they  may  be  led  to  understand  the 
reasons  for  success  and  failure  in  agricultural  work. 
Good  farmers  may  be  asked  to  explain  their  operations 
to  pupils;  or  they  may  be  induced  to  bring  animals 
to  the  school  to  be  studied  by  the  classes  in  agri- 
culture when  it  is  not  convenient  for  the  students 
to  go  to  the  farms.  The  towns  or  village  barns  and 
poultry  yards,  the  butcher  shops,  livery  stables,  farm 
implement  houses,  and  many  other  business  places 
will  also  be  found  to  furnish  valuable  illustrative 
material. 

The  teacher  should  familiarize  himself  with  those  re- 
sources of  the  community  which  can  be  profitably  uti- 
lized by  him  in  his  teaching  and  should  select  from  the 
wealth  of  material  offered  such  as  will  be  most  helpful. 
Whenever  possible  he  should  see  to  it  that  the  school 
work  touches  actual  experience  and  conditions;  and 
wherever  possible  he  should  make  use  of  the  experiences 


78          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

and  businesses  of  the  community.1  When  a  principle  of 
agriculture  is  being  studied  that  does  not  readily  lend 
itself  to  illustration  outside  of  the  schoolroom,  the 
laboratory  must  be  utilized,  with  its  specially  prepared 
apparatus  for  experiments,  demonstrations,  etc.  But 
the  valuable  illustrative  material  outside  of  the  school 
should  never  be  forgotten  or  neglected. 

However,  if  the  field  trip  is  to  be  of  any  great  value, 
it  must  be  more  carefully  planned  than  is  usually  the  case. 
The  teacher  must  know  definitely  what  he  expects  to 
show  to  his  pupils  and  what  he  expects  them  to  do,  to 
observe,  and  to  learn.  He  should  know  whether  the  con- 
ditions of  the  route  gone  over  or  place  visited  are  such 
that  a  trip  will  really  be  of  value.  Proprietors  of  places 
to  be  visited  should  understand  just  when  students  are 
coming  and  the  purpose  of  the  trip ;  and  no  unwelcome 
visits  should  be  made.  Pupils  should  understand  what 
they  are  expected  to  do  and  to  observe  before  starting 
on  a  trip.  Each  student  should  be  assigned  a  definite 
piece  of  work  in  collecting  material,  observing,  etc., 
to  be  reported  upon  later.  This  work,  though  allotted 
sufficient  time  and  opportunity  for  accomplishment, 
should  leave  the  pupil  little  time  to  waste.  He  should 
be  kept  on  the  alert  throughout  the  trip.  Order  should 

1  Crosby,  D.  J.,  "Use  of  Illustrative  Material  in  Teaching  Agricul- 
ture in  Rural  Schools."  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbook, 
1905,  pp.  257-274. 


TEACHING  METHODS   TO   BE   EMPLOYED  79 

prevail  on  the  trip  as  in  the  classroom  or  laboratory. 
It  is  a  different  kind  of  order,  to  be  sure,  but  it  should 
be  maintained. 

Having  provided  for  the  acquisition  of  facts,  we  must 
next  provide  for  their  application.  For  this  a  greenhouse 
and  experimental  grounds  or  a  school  farm  are  necessary. 
Here  the  pupil  puts  into  practice  information  gained, 
deals  with  actual  problems  at  first  hand,  and  achieves 
concrete  results.  In  the  greenhouse  he  himself  propa- 
gates plants  by  the  various  methods  of  which  he  has 
read  or  which  he  has  observed.  In  the  school  garden  he 
works  the  soil,  deals  with  the  varying  conditions  which 
affect  plant  life,  and  learns  personal  lessons  of  failure 
and  success.  On  the  school  farm  he  uses  farm  machinery, 
cares  for  live  stock,  prunes,  sprays,  and  grafts  trees,  and 
puts  in  operation  the  thousand  and  one  things  which  he 
has  learned  in  the  classroom,  the  laboratory,  or  by  ob- 
servation on  field  trips  or  elsewhere.  Through  repetition 
of  this  doing,  that  is,  by  practice,  he  not  only  acquires 
skill  in  the  application  of  his  knowledge,  but  learns  many 
things  which  he  would  be  apt  to  miss  if  only  schoolroom 
work  and  field  trips  were  provided  for  in  the  agricultural 
studies.  By  practice  work  is  developed  that  self-confi- 
dence which  is  so  important  an  element  in  success  in  any 
line ;  reason,  foresight,  and  judgment  are  exercised ; 
and  enthusiasm  for  agricultural  study  is  intensified. 

Rules  for  field  work  must  of  course  be  sufficiently 


80          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

fixed  and  definite,  so  that  students  will  be  held  to  good 
methods  and  thus  acquire  good  habits  of  work;  yet 
they  should  not  be  too  fixed  and  definite.  Students 
should  be  encouraged  to  discover  new  and  improved 
ways  of  doing  things ;  originality  should  not  be  crushed. 

In  addition  to  its  usefulness  in  the  ways  mentioned, 
the  school  farm,  through  its  experiments  in  the  growth 
of  newly  introduced  plants,  in  plant  breeding,  or  in  farm 
methods,  may  give  the  student  an  opportunity  to  take 
a  part  in  valuable  investigational  work.  He  may  thus 
be  led  to  attempt  original  experiments  and  to  acquire 
a  permanent  interest  in  such  work. 

But  agricultural  practice  work  may  be  carried  on  at 
home  as  well  as  at  school.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged 
to  attack  individual  problems  in  agricultural  work  and 
to  carry  them  to  a  conclusion  in  home  experiments.  For 
not  only  is  information  and  training  thus  acquired,- 
but  the  power  of  taking  the  initiative  is  developed,  self- 
reliance  is  cultivated,  the  value  of  labor  is  demonstrated, 
and  the  advantages  of  special  knowledge  are  empha- 
sized. 

Lastly,  we  may  well  note  some  special  aids  which  have 
been  found  helpful  in  increasing  the  efficiency  of  school 
work  in  agriculture.  One  of  these  is  the  organization 
of  an  agricultural  club.1  At  the  meetings  of  such  a  club, 

1Howe,  F.  W.,  "Boys'  and  Girls'  Agricultural  Clubs,"  Farmers' 
Bui.  385. 


TEACHING  METHODS    TO   BE   EMPLOYED  8l 

which  are  usually  freely  open  to  all  pupils  and  adver- 
tized in  local  papers,  prominent  farmers  or  others  in- 
terested in  agriculture  are  invited  to  speak;  or  the 
members  take  charge  of  the  meeting  themselves  and  give 
a  more  or  less  agricultural  program.  Contests  may  or 
may  not  form  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  club.  In  the 
Middle  West,  corn-growing  clubs  have  been  especially 
popular.  These  are  associations  of  boys  who  enter  a 
competition  to  determine  which  can  grow  the  most 
or  the  best  corn  on  a  certain  area  of  ground  under  defi- 
nite rules  of  planting,  cultivation,  and  exhibition  of 
their  product.  Cotton-growing  clubs  undertake  similar 
competitions  in  certain  parts  of  the  South.  For  girls 
these  contests  frequently  take  the  form  of  joint  contests 
with  boys  in  gardening  or  poultry  raising,  though  they 
may  very  profitably  deal  with  various  other  problems. 

Many  such  clubs  are  found  in  rural  districts  and  many 
are  organized  in  connection  with  the  upper  grades  in 
town.  In  other  cases  they  have  no  connection  with 
the  local  schools,  but  are  organized  by  officials  of  the 
extension  department  of  the  state  agricultural  college 
or  by  others  interested.  The  agricultural  club  has  also 
been  profitably  utilized  as  a  part  of  the  agricultural  work 
and  activities  of  the  high  school,  and  may  well  be  made 
use  of  more  widely. 

In  connection  with  the  club  work,  exhibits  of  products 
raised  by  members  may  be  shown  at  school  exhibits, 


82          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

county  and  local  fairs,  etc.  Specimens  of  fruits,  vege- 
tables, and  grains  raised  locally  may  be  collected  by 
members  and  preserved  in  glass  jars  as  part  of  a  per- 
manent collection  to  be  secured  by  the  school  for  illus- 
trative purposes.  Weed  seeds,  specimens  of  injurious 
insects,  etc.,  may  be  collected  and  put  in  properly  la- 
beled bottles  or  cases  for  the  same  purpose.  Many 
other  kinds  of  work  may  also  be  taken  up,  and  social 
intercourse  should  not  be  neglected.  The  club  will 
thus  not  only  accomplish  useful  results,  but  it  will  bring 
persons  interested  in  the  same  things  into  pleasant  con- 
tact and  intimacy,  connect  the  school  life  closely  with 
the  home  and  social  life  of  pupils,  and  serve  as  one  means 
of  making  school  patrons  feel  that  something  worth 
while  is  being  done  along  agricultural  lines  in  the  school. 

So  far  we  have  dealt  only  with  agricultural  instruction 
for  the  school  pupils.  In  addition,  the  high  school  agri- 
cultural department  may  well  undertake  what  is  known 
as  community  work  —  that  is,  work  with  the  commu- 
nity at  large  —  with  the  men  and  women  on  the  farms 
and  the  boys  and  girls  who  cannot  attend  school  regu- 
larly. Though  such  work  is  not  directly  for  the  school 
pupils  it  reacts  very  favorably  on  the  school  work  and 
increases  its  efficiency.  It  is  therefore  not  out  of  place 
to  consider  it  here. 

This  new  work  resembles  the  extension  work  carried 
on  by  the  colleges,  but  differs  from  it  in  that  the  work 


TEACHING   METHODS   TO   BE   EMPLOYED  83 

in  the  high  school  deals  with  people  at  first  hand,  while 
the  college  often  treats  them  at  the  length  of  the  state. 

Some  of  the  forms  of  community  work  now  practiced 
in  agricultural  high  schools  or  by  agricultural  depart- 
ments in  the  regular  high  schools  are,  as  outlined  so 
admirably  by  D.  J.  Crosby  and  B.  H.  Crocheron  in  the 
1910  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  those 
given  below.1 

i:  Work  with  farmers,  as  winter  lecture  courses  on 
agriculture,  corn  and  potato  shows,  field  and  orchard 
demonstrations,  home  experiments,  good  seed  distribu- 
tion, seed  and  milk  testing,  preparing  plans  for  buildings, 
and  selecting  and  purchasing  improved  live  stock  and 
farm  machinery. 

2.  Work  with  farm  women,  as  afternoon  or  evening 
meetings  and  short  courses  at  the   school,   house-to- 
house  meetings,  and  home  garden  and  poultry  experi- 
ments. 

3.  Work  with  young  people,  as  short  courses  in  agri- 
culture   and    home   economics,    literary   societies,   and 
nature-study  clubs. 

4.  Work  with  rural  school  teachers,  as  meetings  for 
agricultural     instruction,    nature-study     rambles,     at- 
tendance at  school  fairs  and  rallies,  and  outline  lessons 

1  Crosby,  D.  J.,  and  Crocheron,  B.  H.,  "Community  Work  in  the 
Rural  High  School."  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbook, 
1910,  pp.  i87-i88a. 


84          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

in  agriculture  and  home  economics  published  in  local 
educational  journals. 

5.  Work  with  rural  school  children,  as  boys'  agricul- 
tural clubs,  girls'  domestic  science  clubs,  summer  vaca- 
tion encampments,  rural  improvement  field  days,  and 
athletic  field  days. 

All  these  forms  of  community  work  have  been  carried 
on  by  high  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  country  with 
great  success.  No  one  school  will  ordinarily  be  able 
to  carry  on  all  the  lines  of  work,  but  each  school  can 
select  those  forms  of  community  work  which,  it  seems, 
will  prove  most  helpful  for  the  surrounding  community. 
The  agricultural  high  school  may  well  undertake  at  least 
some  one  form  of  community  work  with  each  of  the  five 
classes  of  persons  mentioned.  In  the  ordinary  high 
school  in  which  the  agricultural  work  is  but  one  depart- 
ment, and  there  are  only  one  or  two  agricultural  instruc- 
tors, it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  confine  the  work 
to  one  or  two  kinds  of  endeavor.  The  work  to  be  done 
in  any  case  and  the  special  methods  to  be  employed 
depend  largely  upon  local  conditions,  such  as  the  needs 
of  the  people,  the  size  of  the  school,  and  the  time  avail- 
able to  instructors  for  such  work.  No  definite  rules 
can  be  laid  down. 

Such  work  adds  to  the  work  of  the  agricultural 
teacher,  and  it  may  be  argued  that  it  is  unjust  to  burden 
him  with  it.  But  while  it  does  take  time  and  energy, 


TEACHING  METHODS    TO   BE   EMPLOYED  85 

it  will  greatly  help  the  teacher  in  gaining  the  interest 
and  cooperation  of  the  community  in  the  actual  school 
work.  Frequently  it  results  in  definite  and  concrete 
help.  Farmers  make  a  special  effort  to  cooperate  with 
the  school,  to  furnish  illustrative  material  for  the  school 
work,  and  to  assist  in  making  field  trips  profitable  for 
pupils. 

It  is  also  said  that  such  work  requires  special  ability 
and  preparation.  This  has  not  proved  to  be  the  case, 
however.  Any  agricultural  teacher  who  is  really  fitted 
to  teach  high  school  pupils  is  fitted  to  undertake  some 
community  work.  The  only  agricultural  teaching  that 
is  worth  while  is  that  which  can  stand  the  test  of  practice. 
If  the  teacher's  schoolroom  theories  will  not  stand  the 
scrutiny  and  test  of  the  farmers  of  the  community,  he 
has  no  business  to  be  teaching  their  children.  If  the  agri- 
cultural information  of  the  teacher  is  broad  and  thor- 
ough, he  will  find  that  farmers  will  be  very  responsive 
to  his  efforts  to  help  them.  The  farmer  of  to-day  is, 
in  general,  desirous  of  learning  new  and  improved  agri- 
cultural methods.  The  high  school  agricultural  teacher 
is  in  a  most  admirable  position  to  assist  him.  He  is 
familiar  with,  local  conditions  and  needs,  and  lives  in 
the  community  to  be  served.  It  should  be  far  easier 
for  him  to  plan  an  interesting  institute,  short  course, 
series  of  lectures,  or  home  experiments,  than  for  an 
outsider  at  the  state  capitol,  the  university,  or  elsewhere, 


86    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

not  so  familiar  with  conditions,  though  the  outsider  may 
be  a  very  able  man. 

PRACTICUM 

Examine  carefully  ten  agricultural  textbooks  intended 
for  high  school  use.  Write  a  brief  critical  estimate  of 
each. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

BRICKER,  G.  A.  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  High  School. 
Chapters  8  and  9.  N.  Y.  Macmillan.  1911. 

BUTTON,  H.  F.  Short  Courses  and  Extension  Work  in  Agriculture 
for  High  Schools  in  the  South.  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education.  Eleventh  Yearbook.  1912.  Part  2. 
pp.  75-82. 

Course  in  Agriculture  for  the  High  Schools  of  Michigan.  Michigan 
Agricultural  College,  Department  of  Agricultural  Education 
Bui.  7.  1911. 

CRANE,  F.  R.  Short  Courses  and  Extension  Work  in  Agriculture 
for  High  Schools  in  the  North.  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education.  Eleventh  Yearbook.  1912.  Part  2. 
pp.  83-90.  . 

CROSBY,  D.  J.  Use  of  Illustrative  Material  in  Teaching  Agri- 
culture in  Rural  Schools.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Yearbook,  pp.  257-274.  1905. 

CROSBY,  D.  J.,  and  CROCHERON,  B.  H.  Community  Work  in  the 
Rural  High  School.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Year- 
book, pp.  i77-i88a.  1910. 

DAVIS,  B.  M.  Agricultural  Education.  Chapters  12  and  14. 
Chic.  University  of  Chicago  Press.  1912. 

HOWE,  F.  W.  Boys'  and  Girls'  Agricultural  Clubs.  Farmers' 
Bui.  385. 

HURD,  W.  D.     Course  in  Agriculture  for  High  Schools  in  Maine. 


TEACHING   METHODS   TO   BE   EMPLOYED  87 

Arranged  and  compiled  under  the  direction  of  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Schools.  Waterville.  Sentinel 
Pub.  Co.  1909. 

Minnesota  Department  of  Public  Instruction  Bui.  38.  Outlines 
for  Secondary  Courses  in  Agriculture.  1912. 

New  York  State  Education  Department.  Syllabus  for  Agricul- 
ture in  Secondary  Schools.  1910. 


CHAPTER  V 

EQUIPMENT 

THE  equipment  needed  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture 
in  the  high  school  will  of  course  depend  upon  the  size 
of  the  school  and  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  agri- 
cultural work  to  be  given.  It  may  be  simple  and  com- 
paratively inexpensive,  or  very  extensive  and  costly, 
depending  upon  conditions  and  needs.  But  whatever 
the  conditions,  the  equipment  must  be  adequate  if  the 
teaching  is  to  be  effective.  There  has,  in  the  past, 
been  too  much  teaching  of  agriculture  without  sufficient 
equipment;  and  this  has  explained  its  failure  or  only 
partial  success  in  certain  cases.  There  has  been  too 
much  said  in  commendation  of  going  to  the  rubbish 
pile  for  old  tin  cans,  bottles,  paint  pails,  etc.,  and  the  use 
of  makeshifts  in  carrying  on  the  agricultural  work  of 
the  high  school.  It  should  be  remembered  that  it  takes 
time  and  labor  to  get  these  things  ready  for  use  in  the 
laboratory;  they  are  only  partially  satisfactory  when 
used ;  and,  to  say  the  least,  they  do  not  make  an  attract- 
ive laboratory.  They  may  be  made  to  serve  in  cases 
where  it  is  the  rubbish  heap  or  nothing,  to  be  sure,  but 
their  use  should  not  be  emphasized  as  it  has  been  in  the 
past. 


EQUIPMENT  89 

Agriculture  requires  a  definite  special  equipment  as 
well  as  do  the  other  sciences ;  and  it  should  be  provided. 
There  is  no  more  reason  why  agriculture  should  be 
taught  " without  funds  and  without  equipment"  than 
that  chemistry  be  taught  in  that  way.  The  necessity 
of  adequate  equipment  for  chemistry,  physics,  etc., 
is  recognized.  This  should  also  be  true  with  regard  to 
agriculture.  Yet  even  when  the  needs  of  adequate 
agricultural  equipment  are  recognized,  it  is  frequently 
said  that  the  equipment  for  the  pure  sciences  must  come 
first ;  and  after  these  are  provided  for  there  are  usually 
no  funds  left  for  agriculture.  Yet  in  only  too  many 
schools  where  this  excuse  is  made,  money  has  been  really 
wasted  on  the  equipment  for  the  physical  sciences; 
that  is,  the  equipment  has  been  injudiciously  selected. 
Money  has  been  spent  not  only  for  the  necessary  ma- 
terials and  apparatus,  but  for  very  expensive  apparatus, 
probably  used  but  once  a  year,  perhaps  less  often,  and 
sometimes  for  comparatively  unimportant  experiments. 
If  the  equipment  for  the  common  high  school  sciences 
were  judiciously  selected,  there  would,  in  many  cases, 
not  only  be  more  money  available  for  the  equipment 
of  the  new  work  in  agriculture,  but  the  pure  science 
laboratories  themselves  would  be  quite  as  effectively 
fitted. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  adequate  provision  for  agri- 
cultural teaching  in  the  high  school  requires  a  greater 


QO          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

expenditure  than  does  any  one  of  the  other  sciences. 
To  equip  and  to  maintain  an  agricultural  department 
properly  requires  more  money  than  is  required  for  a 
pure  science.  Provision  must  be  made  for  both  indoor 
and  outdoor  work.  Teachers  of  vocational  work  are 
obliged  to  have  a  combination  of  practical  and  theo- 
retical training  and  must  not  only  be  paid  more  than 
skilled  workers  in  the  vocation  which  they  are  teaching, 
but  more  than  the  teacher  of  a  non-vocational  subject. 

Instruction  in  agriculture  or  any  other  vocational 
subject  cannot  be  as  widely  introduced  or  as  efficiently 
carried  on  as  is  desirable  in  this  country  if  supported 
only  by  local  or  private  enterprise.  Nor  is  it  right  that 
it  should  be  so  supported.  The  pupils  of  our  public 
schools  do  not  necessarily  settle  in  their  own  community 
to  live  their  lives  or  do  their  life  work.  Conditions  are 
such  that  they  may  easily  go  from  one  locality  to  another 
—  from  one  state  to  another.  A  boy  vocationally  trained 
in  the  schools  of  one  community  may  benefit  another 
community  by  his  skill  and  thrift.  All  communities, 
all  states,  should  be  equally  interested  in  vocational 
training.  It  has  been  shown  that  this  kind  of  training 
is  as  necessary  for  the  best  prosperity  of  our  nation  as 
is  the  training  afforded  by  the  old  system  of  education. 
The  states  should  therefore  contribute  to  the  support 
of  these  vocational  courses  in  the  public  schools.  It  is 
even  asserted  that  the  national  government  itself  may 


EQUIPMENT  91 

legitimately  be  called  upon  to  aid  this  form  of  educa- 
tion.1 It  already  contributes  to  vocational  education 
in  engineering  and  agriculture  in  the  colleges.  It  is 
both  desirable  and  expedient  that  it  should  contribute 
to  the  work  farther  down  the  line.  The  Davis  bill, 
introduced  in  Congress  in  1910,  and  the  Page  bill  of 
1911  were  efforts  to  secure  federal  aid  for  high  school 
instruction  in  agriculture. 

Several  states  are  already  contributing  to  the  support 
of  the  agricultural  work,  not  only  in  special  schools  but 
in  the  regular  high  schools  where  such  work  is  intro- 
duced.2 Other  states  must  inevitably  fall  in  line  as  soon 

1  Snedden,  David,  "Problem  of  Vocational  Education,"  p.  67. 

2  For  example,  in  1910  the  Legislature  of  New  York  State  passed  an 
act  providing  that  any  public  school  above  the  elementary  grades  that 
established  industrial  training  shall  receive  from  the  state  $500  for  each 
independently  organized  school  or  department  of  agriculture,  mechanic 
arts,  or  home-making  employing  a  teacher  for  that  work  exclusively, 
and  $200  for  each  additional  teacher. 

In  1908  the  Virginia  Legislature  made  an  appropriation  of  $20,000 
per  year  for  two  years,  to  enable  the  State  Board  of  Education  to  estab- 
lish industrial  courses  in  at  least  one  public  high  school  in  each  congres- 
sional district.  Nearly  all  of  the  money  went  to  established  high  schools. 
In  1910  the  appropriation  was  increased  to  $30,000  annually,  and,  for 
the  year  1912,  $25,000  was  appropriated  for  buildings  and  equipment 
for  these  schools  and  $10,000  for  extension  work  carried  on  by  them. 

The  Putnam  Act,  passed  by  the  Minnesota  Legislature  in  1909,  pro- 
vided state  aid  to  the  amount  of  $2500  to  each  of  ten  high  schools,  or 
consolidated  rural  schools,  which  would  maintain  suitably  equipped  agri- 
cultural and  industrial  departments.  The  state  pays  two-thirds  the  ex- 
pense to  maintain  such  departments,  but  not  to  exceed  $2500  each  year 
to  each  school.  By  legislative  act  of  1911,  the  number  of  schools  aided 


Q2  MATERIALS   AND  METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

as  the  profitable  nature  of  such  state  investment  in  indus- 
trial education  is  more  fully  realized.  For,  as  stated  by 

was  increased.  The  Benson-Lee  Act  of  191 1  gives  $1000  each  to  fifty 
other  Minnesota  high  schools  for  maintaining  satisfactory  courses  in 
agriculture. 

In  1910  the  Legislature  of  Louisiana  passed  a  law  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  agricultural  teaching  in  high  schools  and  voted  $50,000  for  the 
period  1912-1913  for  aid  to  schools  maintaining  a  course  approved  by 
the  State  Board  of  Education. 

In  1911  Kansas  made  an  appropriation  of  $50,000  for  1912-1913,  for 
the  purpose  of  granting  $250  state  aid  to  each  high  school  that  estab- 
lished a  one-year  course  in  agriculture,  and  a  one-year  course  in  domes- 
tic science. 

The  Maine  Legislature  has  provided  that  any  free  high  school  or 
incorporated  academy  in  the  state  maintaining  an  approved  course  in 
manual  training,  domestic  science,  or  agriculture  shall  be  entitled  to  re- 
ceive annually  from  the  state  a  sum  equal  to  two-thirds  the  amount  ex- 
pended for  such  instruction  up  to  $500. 

The  Maryland  Legislature  provides  state  aid  for  agriculture  and  other 
industrial  subjects  in  two  classes  of  high  schools.  In  schools  with  at 
least  eighty  high  school  pupils  and  a  four-year  course  of  study  the  state 
gives  $400  towards  the  salary  of  each  of  two  special  teachers,  and  to 
schools  with  at  least  thirty-five  high  school  pupils  and  a  three-year  course 
of  study,  $400  towards  the  salary  of  one  special  teacher. 

The  Massachusetts  Legislature  has  appropriated  $10,000  per  year  to 
aid  in  the  support  of  vocational  agricultural  departments  in  selected 
high  schools.  Towns  providing  such  approved  departments  will  be  re- 
imbursed by  the  state  to  the  extent  of  two-thirds  of  the  amount  of  sala- 
ries paid  to  agricultural  instructors. 

The  North  Dakota  Legislature  provides  for  state  aid  to  the  amount  of 
$2500  annually  to  each  high,  graded,  and  consolidated  school  to  establish 
and  maintain  a  department  of  agriculture  and  other  industrial  subjects. 
A  requirement  is  that  the  school  have  at  least  ten  acres  of  land  suitable 
for  a  school  garden  and  purposes  of  demonstration.  Funds  have  not 
been  available  for  this  state  aid  up  to  1913. 

The  new  school  code  of  Pennsylvania  requires  that  all  township  high 


EQUIPMENT  93 

Dr.  True,  "If  literary  education  has  been  a  profitable 
investment  for  the  American  public,  industrial  educa- 
tion is  likely  to  prove  a  bonanza." 

In  discussing  the  agricultural  equipment  of  the  high 
school  we  may  perhaps  most  profitably  consider  it  under 
four  heads:  (i)  the  laboratory;  (2)  the  school  farm; 
(3)  the  agricultural  library ;  and  (4)  illustrative  exhibits. 
In  addition,  the  community  surrounding  the  school  also 
affords  valuable  materials  for  study  by  agricultural 
students,  and  these  should  be  utilized  as  far  as  is  profit- 
able ;  but  since  none  of  these  outside  illustrative  mate- 
rials have  to  be  purchased  by  the  school  or  belong  to 
the  school,  we  shall  not  consider  them  here. 

The  purpose  of  the  laboratory  and  its  equipment  is 
to  furnish  a  workroom  and  means  for  demonstrating 
agricultural  truths  and  performing  exercises  through 
which  students  discover  agricultural  truths  for  them- 

schools  receiving  state  aid  must  teach  agriculture  in  a  manner  accept- 
able to  the  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction.  The  amount  re- 
ceived varies  from  $400  to  $800  annually. 

Texas  authorizes  public  high  schools  to  teach  agriculture,  manual 
training,  and  domestic  economy  and  appropriated  $50,000  to  aid  in  es- 
tablishing such  departments  during  1912-1913.  It  gives  not  more  than 
$2000  to  any  one  school  during  the  year,  and  such  appropriation  shall  not 
be  made  more  than  twice  to  the  same  school. 

Wisconsin  provides  state  aid  to  the  amount  of  $250  annually  for  each 
department  of  manual  training,  domestic  science,  or  agriculture  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  any  free  high  school.  Where  such  departments 
are  also  maintained  in  the  three  grades  next  below  the  high  school,  $350 
annually  may  be  received. 


94    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

selves  or  verify  facts  learned  from  the  text  or  the  teacher. 
In  order  that  the  work  may  be  properly  performed,  the 
room  and  its  furnishings  should  be  suitable  and  all  needed 
apparatus  and  materials  should  be  provided. 

Certain  of  the  materials  and  apparatus  used  in  the 
physical  and  biological  laboratories  may  form  the  basis 
of  that  used  in  the  agricultural  courses.  Not  all  the 
equipment  needed  for  chemistry,  botany,  physical  geog- 
raphy, physics,  etc.,  is  needed  in  the  agricultural  work, 
but  certain  kinds  of  apparatus  and  materials  used  in  each 
of  the  pure  sciences  commonly  taught  in  the  high  school 
are  needed  in  the  work  of  the  agricultural  laboratory. 
In  the  case  of  these,  a  list  of  the  kinds  and  amount  of 
materials  needed  may  be  made  out  annually  or  oftener 
by  the  agricultural  instructor  and  given  to  the  principal 
or  the  heads  of  the  various  science  departments,  when 
it  may  be  added  to  their  orders  and  used  as  needed  by 
the  agricultural  department.  Or  the  agricultural  de- 
partment may  order  these  separately.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  apparatus  needed  by  both  the  agricultural 
and  some  other  departments,  as,  for  example,  micro- 
scopes, needed  by  both  the  botany  or  zoology  and  the 
agricultural  departments.  In  most  schools  it  will 
probably  be  found  not  only  a  matter  of  economy  to  have 
the  same  apparatus  serve  two  teaching  departments 
of  the  school  but  also  perfectly  satisfactory  as  regards 
use.  However,  where  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  apparatus 


EQUIPMENT  95 

properly  serving  the  two  or  more  teaching  departments, 
the  apparatus  should  be  duplicated. 

The  agricultural  laboratory  will,  however,  need  other 
materials  and  apparatus  in  addition  to  those  used  in 
common  with  other  departments.  Some  of  these  must 
be  purchased,  but  others  may  be  obtained  by  a  little 
work  and  trouble.  Soil  samples  for  study  and  experi- 
ment may  be  had  for  the  trouble  of  collecting  them. 
Many  ordinary  farm  seeds  may  be  secured  from  the 
school  farm  or  from  farmers  of  the  district.  Their 
collection  and  preparation  for  use  by  students  will  be 
both  a  matter  of  economy  for  the  school  and  of  educa- 
tion for  the  student.  Of  the  special  agricultural  appara- 
tus, it  will  be  necessary  to  purchase  such  items  as  the 
Babcock  tester,  the  cream  scale,  soil  thermometers,  and 
some  others.  But  many  needed  things  can  be  made  by 
students  of  the  manual  training  department  of  the 
school  or  by  the  agricultural  students  themselves.  How- 
ever, the  time  and  labor  of  students  should  be  used  for 
making  apparatus  only  when  such  work  will  have  some 
educative  or  training  value.  If  it  has  no  such  value, 
the  apparatus  should  be  purchased  or  some  one  hired 
to  make  it. 

One  large  agricultural  laboratory,  properly  fitted, 
may  be  made  to  serve  for  all  the  agricultural  courses  of 
the  ordinary  high  school  with  the  exception  of  dairying. 
For  this  a  special  cement-floor  room  should  be  provided, 


96          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

properly  equipped  with  the  necessary  appliances  of  the 
modern  dairy.  In  a  large  school  it  would  perhaps  be 
desirable  to  have  a  special  agronomy  laboratory,  a  farm 
management  laboratory,  and  so  on;  but  one  room 
equipped  for  work  in  the  different  courses  may  be  made 
to  serve  very  well,  and  usually  this  is  all  that  can  be 
provided. 

If  possible,  the  laboratory  should  be  near  the  ground, 
with  easy  access  to  the  outside  of  the  building,  to  a 
greenhouse,  and  to  a  workroom  where  grosser  materials 
than  those  suited  to  the  laboratory  may  be  handled. 
This  workroom  may  be  connected  with  the  greenhouse 
or  may  be  in  the  school  building,  if  provided  with  an  out- 
side door.  In  some  climates  a  greenhouse  may  not  be 
necessary,  if  a  lath  or  canvas  house  is  substituted  for  it. 
One  of  the  three  is  necessary,  however,  for  any  school 
giving  agricultural  work  of  any  extent  in  plant  propaga- 
tion and  similar  work.  Adjacent  to  the  laboratory  there 
should  be  a  small  room  properly  fitted  with  cabinets, 
shelves,  etc.,  for  the  storage  of  apparatus  and  supplies. 

The  laboratory  and  its  fittings  should  be  such  as  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  various  kinds  of  agricultural 
experiment  or  demonstration  work  (botanical,  chemical, 
etc.).  Ample  space  and  accommodations  should  be 
provided  for  work  by  all  the  individuals  in  a  class.  The 
room  should  be  well  lighted.  There  should  be  suitable 
desks,  tables,  chairs,  a  blackboard,  drawers,  shelves, 


EQUIPMENT  97 

lockers,  sinks,  etc.,  for  the  work  in  soil  physics,  plant 
growth  and  development,  and  other  studies.  Either 
gas  burners  or  alcohol  lamps  should  be  provided  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  supply  each  worker  in  the  labora- 
tory. Drawing  tables  should  be  furnished  either  here 
or  elsewhere  for  the  use  of  students  in  farm  architecture, 
general  farm  management,  and  for  certain  phases  of  the 
work  in  other  subjects. 

All  laboratory  supplies  for  the  year  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  secured  and  in  readiness  for  use  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  school  year.  In  making  up  a  list  of  laboratory 
supplies  for  the  agricultural  work,  the  teacher  should  go 
over  carefully  the  outline  of  the  work  of  each  course 
to  be  given  and  note  what  apparatus  and  materials  will 
be  needed,  at  the  same  time  determining  the  probable 
amount.  In  doing  this  he  will  be  greatly  aided  by  the 
lists  of  laboratory  supplies  for  agricultural  courses 
published  in  connection  with  printed  outlines  of  work 
in  different  schools,  by  the  lists  accompanying  syllabi 
of  state  education  departments,  in  bulletins  published 
by  agricultural  education  departments  of  colleges,  in 
textbooks,  laboratory  manuals,  and  in  the  catalogues 
of  reliable  school  supply  houses.  But  though  these  will 
be  helpful,  local  conditions  and  needs  and  the  special 
work  planned  must  determine  the  supplies  to  be  secured. 

A  second  essential  in  the  agricultural  equipment  of 
a  high  school  is  a  school  farm.  The  purpose  of  the  school 


98          MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

farm  is,  among  other  things,  to  serve  as  a  place  where 
farm  crops  can  be  grown  for  illustrative  purposes  and 
where  practice  work  can  be  done  by  agricultural  students. 
Though  frequently  lacking,  it  is  a  very  necessary  part 
of  the  agricultural  equipment.  The  weak  point  in  vo- 
cational training  in  the  schools  has  been  practice  work. 
While  strong  in  its  ability  to  impart  the  theory  or  ab- 
stract phases  of  a  vocation,  the  school  has  not  given 
proper  attention  to  training  in  doing,  and  for  that  reason 
its  vocational  work  has  often  lacked  effectiveness. 

The  school  farm  may  be  large  or  small,  depending  on 
needs  and  on  the  funds  available  for  its  purchase  and 
maintenance.  It  should  be  distinct  from  the  lawn  and 
playgrounds  immediately  surrounding  the  school, 
though  it  may  be  adjacent  to  them.  The  general  over- 
sight of  these  grounds  will  probably  fall  to  the  agricul- 
tural department,  and  students  will  doubtless  do  some 
work  on  them.  But  their  real  purpose  is  to  serve  as  a 
setting  for  the  school  building  and  for  the  general 
recreation  of  students.  They  should  illustrate  perma- 
nently and  pleasingly  the  elementary  principles  of 
landscape  gardening  and  should  present  at  all  times  a 
well-cared-for,  attractive  appearance.  A  part  of  the 
grounds  should  be  set  aside  for  sports  and  recreation 
of  various  kinds ;  but  they  should  not  be  made  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  a  school  farm  or  be  confused  with  it. 

The  size,  buildings,  equipment,  and  use  of  the  school 


EQUIPMENT  99 

farm  or  agricultural  grounds  will  depend  upon  many 
factors  which  we  shall  not  discuss  here.  (See  Chapter 
XII.)  It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  the  farm  should 
be  of  sufficient  size  and  suitable  equipment  to  provide 
for  a  wide  range  of  practice  work  for  students,  adapted 
to  the  work  of  the  different  agricultural  courses.  It 
should  have  buildings  adequate  for  storage  of  tools, 
housing  of  live  stock  owned  by  the  school,  a  greenhouse 
or  lath  house,  and  a  room  or  shop  for  farm  mechanics 
work,  repair  of  tools,  etc.  Certain  other  buildings, 
such  as  a  farm  dwelling,  are  also  desirable,  if  the  size 
of  the  farm  warrants  them. 

A  third  important  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  high 
school  giving  agricultural  courses  is  found  in  its  agri- 
cultural library.  Ordinarily,  too  little  attention  is  given 
to  it.  It  should  be  shelved  with  the  other  books  of  the 
high  school  library  in  a  quiet,  well-lighted  room  set 
apart  for  the  purpose.  This  room  should  be  supplied 
with  chairs  and  tables,  where  books  and  bulletins  can 
be  consulted  in  comfort  and  periodicals  looked  over. 
All  books  should  be  carefully  classified  (preferably  by  the 
Dewey  decimal  classification  system  which  is  commonly 
used  in  public  libraries),  and  a  complete  card  catalogue, 
including  author  and  subject  entries,  should  be  available 
for  consultation.  The  book  shelves  should  be  neat  and 
well  made,  uniform  in  character,  and  such  that  all  books 
are  easily  accessible  to  students. 


100       MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

If  there  is  a  large  collection  of  bulletins  and  circulars 
of  the  various  state  experiment  stations  and  the  na- 
tional Department  of  Agriculture,  they  should  be  ar- 
ranged in  order  by  number  under  the  proper  bureau, 
office,  or  station,  and  each  set  given  a  classification  num- 
ber. They  should  then  be  catalogued  fully  in  order 
that  the  valuable  material  contained  may  be  readily 
accessible.  The  bulletins  should  be  kept  in  pamphlet 
boxes  or  in  temporary  binders  until  a  certain  number, 
or  publications  covering  a  certain  period,  have  been 
acquired.  They  may  then  be  bound  permanently. 
However,  if  the  bulletin  collection  is  very  small  and 
scattered,  each  may  be  put  in  a  manila  cover,  classified 
and  catalogued  in  the  same  way  as  a  book. 

Agricultural  periodicals,  if  of  but  temporary  interest, 
may  be  saved  for  a  few  months  and  then  disposed  of  as 
the  teacher  sees  fit.  If  of  permanent  value,  they  may  be 
bound  every  six  months  or  every  year. 

The  catalogue  and  care  of  the  agricultural  library  will 
probably  not  fall  to  the  agricultural  teacher,  but  to  the 
school  librarian  or  to  some  other  teacher  to  whom  li- 
brary duties  are  assigned.  These  suggestions  are  not 
out  of  place,  however,  for  the  agricultural  teacher  should 
know  how  to  care  for  the  agricultural  book  collection. 

Both  books  and  bulletins  should  be  generously  supplied 
in  the  agricultural  library ;  and  some  agricultural  papers 
and  periodicals  should  be  received  regularly.  The  book 


EQUIPMENT  .       !  .        "COI 

list  should  be  well  balanced,  including  books  on  all 
the  various  subjects  of  instruction,  —  animal  hus- 
bandry, field  crops,  horticulture,  general  plant  study, 
farm  management,  etc.  Books  should  be  well  written, 
up-to-date,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  adapted  to  the  com- 
prehension of  high  school  pupils.  Certain  books  quite 
beyond  the  student  may,  however,  be  included  in  the 
library  for  the  teacher's  use,  that  he  may  select  mate- 
rial from  them  and  present  it  to  students  in  suitable 
form. 

Before  selecting  his  book  list,  the  teacher  should  go 
over  the  agricultural  studies  to  be  taught  and  make  a 
note  of  the  more  important  publications  on  the  topics 
of  instruction  suited  to  the  needs  of  his  students.  He 
may  also  secure  lists  of  books  in  other  high  school  agri- 
cultural libraries  to  help  him  in  selection.  Many  such 
lists,  together  with  "  model,"  or  especially  recommended, 
lists,  may  be  found  printed  in  bulletins  of  agricultural 
education  departments  of  colleges,  in  syllabi  of  state 
education  departments,  etc.  Excellent  short  lists  of 
reference  material  are  frequently  found  in  books  and 
bulletins  on  special  topics,  as,  for  example,  that  on  corn 
at  the  end  of  Farmers'  Bulletin  409,  that  on  tree  litera- 
ture at  the  end  of  California  Circular  59,  and  others. 
The  catalogues  and  announcement  lists  of  the  various 
book  firms  should  also  be  secured  regularly,  and  those 
agricultural  books  which  promise  to  be  of  most  value 


IQ2       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

should  be  examined  as  soon  as  possible  to  determine 
whether  their  purchase  for  the  school  will  be  advisable. 

Having  made  out  the  list  of  books  desired,  the  agri- 
cultural teacher  will  probably  find  that  funds  are  avail- 
able for  the  purchase  of  only  a  small  part  of  them.  He 
must  then  choose  from  his  lists  such  as  are  most  needed 
for  immediate  purchase,  and  secure  the  others  as  soon 
as  funds  are  available. 

Fortunately,  much  valuable  material  for  the  agricul- 
tural library  can  be  secured  free,  in  the  form  of  bulletins 
and  circulars.  The  agricultural  teacher  should  write 
to  the  state  experiment  station  and  ask  to  have  the 
school  placed  on  the  mailing  list,  that  it  may  receive 
regularly  all  bulletins  and  circulars  of  the  station  as 
issued. 

He  should  secure,  from  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  the  "  Monthly  List  of  Department  Publi- 
cations," and  the  "  Monthly  List  of  Experiment  Station 
Publications,"  both  of  which  are  sent  regularly  to  all 
who  apply  for  them.  In  addition,  he  should  secure 
from  the  department  Circular  2  of  the  Division  of  Pub- 
lications, entitled  " Publications  for  Free  Distribution"; 
Division  of  Publications  Circular  3,  "  Publications  for 
Sale"  ;  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Circular  94,  "Free 
Publications  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  classified 
for  the  Use  of  Teachers" ;  and  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions Bulletin  180,  "List  of  Publications  of  the  Agricul- 


EQUIPMENT  103 

tural  Experiment  Stations,  ...  to  June  30,  1906." 
From  the  last  four  of  these  he  will  be  able  to  select  such 
bulletins  and  circulars  as  have  been  published  in  pre- 
vious years  and  as  are  suited  to  his  needs.  The  "List 
of  Publications  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations" 
will,  however,  have  to  be  brought  up-to-date  by  con- 
sulting the  monthly  list  from  June,  1906,  to  date. 

By  means  of  the  two  first-named  lists  the  teacher  will 
be  enabled  to  note  all  new  publications  of  the  experi- 
ment stations  and  the  national  agricultural  department 
as  they  are  printed  and  may  send  for  such  as  he  desires 
for  his  school  library. 

Many  publications  of  value  to  the  high  school  agri- 
cultural teacher  are  issued  by  state  departments  of  edu- 
cation, state  agricultural  boards,  etc.  All  such  are  listed, 
together  with  many  others,  in  a  monthly  publication 
issued  by  the  United  States  Library  of  Congress,  Divi- 
sion of  Documents,  entitled  a  "Monthly  List  of  State 
Publications." 

As  to  the  periodicals  and  papers  to  be  secured  for  the 
school  agricultural  library,  free  copies  will  very  likely 
be  donated  by  the  publishers  of  some  of  those  desired. 
The  others  may  be  subscribed  for  by  the  school,  or  by 
agricultural  classes.  The  quality  of  such  periodicals 
as  are  found  on  the  library  tables  should  be  of  the  best. 
It  is  far  better  to  have  one  good  periodical  or  paper 
than  a  dozen  poorly  written  ones,  perhaps  including  much 


104       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

inaccurate  material.  There  should  be  at  least  one 
periodical  or  paper  of  special  local  or  state  interest 
agriculturally,  another  dealing  largely  with  the  leading 
interest  of  the  community  (as  horticulture  in  a  horticul- 
tural district,  dairying  in  a  dairy  district,  etc.),  and  others 
of  general  scope.  The  school  should  also  receive,  with- 
out fail,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  periodical, 
"The  Experiment  Station  Record,"  which  gives  monthly 
reviews  of  station  and  government  bulletins,  of  circu- 
lars on  agricultural  topics,  and  of  important  periodical 
articles  and  books  on  agricultural  chemistry,  field  crops, 
horticulture,  zootechny,  dairying,  veterinary  medicine, 
agricultural  education,  rural  engineering,  and  related 
topics. 

The  agricultural  library  should,  then,  be  comprehen- 
sive, up-to-date,  properly  arranged  and  cared  for.  It 
must  also  be  used.  Students  must  be  instructed  in  the 
use  of  books  and  bulletins  and  their  attention  frequently 
directed  to  the  agricultural  library.  Noteworthy  arti- 
cles in  periodicals  should  be  mentioned  in  class  as  soon 
after  the  periodicals  have  been  received  as  opportu- 
nity offers.  In  every  way  possible  the  student  should  be 
led  to  appreciate  the  value  of  good  agricultural  literature, 
to  understand  how  to  use  it  and  to  know  its  sources. 

Frequently  the  public  library  of  a  town  is  very  glad  to 
cooperate  with  teachers  in  any  way  possible,  and  if  the 
library  funds  of  the  school  are  inadequate  and  it  is  im- 


EQUIPMENT  105 

possible  to  secure  for  the  school  all  the  books  which  are 
needed,  the  public  library  may  be  induced  to  buy  at 
least  single  copies  of  books,  and  in  some  cases  dupli- 
cates. Students  may  then  be  referred  to  the  books  in 
the  public  library  and  be  sent  there  to  do  reading  occa- 
sionally. 

Last  in  our  consideration  of  the  agricultural  equipment 
of  a  high  school,  but  by  no  means  unimportant,  come 
illustrative  exhibits.  Fortunately,  these  usually  cost 
little  but  time  and  care.  Provision  must  be  made, 
however,  for  suitable  cabinets,  shelves,  cases,  etc.,  for 
preserving  the  exhibits.  If  a  small  room  of  suitable  size 
is  available,  it  may  be  properly  equipped  and  the  ex- 
hibits may  be  kept  there ;  or  a  portion  of  the  library  may 
perhaps  be  used ;  or  they  may  be  stored  in  a  part  of  the 
agricultural  classroom,  or  even,  if  necessary,  in  the  school 
corridors. 

The  exhibits  will  naturally  differ  in  every  school. 
They  should  include  many  illustrative  materials  that  will 
be  helpful  in  the  instruction  in  agriculture  and  that  may 
not  otherwise  be  available  when  needed.  Specimens  of 
local  farm  products,  properly  preserved,  such  as  fruits, 
vegetables,  grains,  etc.,  should  be  included,  as  also  ex- 
hibits of  some  of  the  more  important  agricultural  prod- 
ucts raised  elsewhere.  If  possible,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  each  kind  of  product  represented  by  several  differ- 
ent varieties.  Exhibits  of  soil  samples,  injurious  insects, 


106       MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

weed  seeds,  economic  seeds,  and  mounted  specimens  of 
troublesome  weeds  should  find  a  place  in  the  collection. 
Mounted  illustrations  or  photographs  of  farm  buildings, 
with  plans,  may  well  be  included,  as  also  models  of  farm 
buildings,  building  specifications,  etc.  Pictures  of  farm 
machinery,  plans  for  the  layout  of  farms,  and  many 
other  useful  exhibits  will  suggest  themselves. 

Excellent  educational  exhibits,  valuable  as  illustrative 
material  for  agricultural  classes,  may  frequently  be  se- 
cured free  of  charge  from  the  manufacturers  of  certain 
products.  Examples  of  these  are  the  exhibit  of  cereal 
products  prepared  by  the  Postum  Cereal  Co.,  Battle 
Creek,  Mich. ;  that  of  corn  products  prepared  by  the 
Corn  Products  Refining  Co.,  Chicago,  HI. ;  and  that  of 
cattle  products  which  can  be  secured  from  Morris  and 
Co.,  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago. 

All  exhibits  should,  of  course,  be  carefully  labeled, 
arranged,  and  catalogued.  They  may  then  be  readily 
noted  in  class  work  and  referred  to  easily  by  students. 
The  exhibits  should  be  kept  up-to-date  just  as  care- 
fully as  is  the  agricultural  library.  Useful  material 
should  be  watched  for  and  added  as  opportunity  offers. 
The  materials  preserved  should  be  really  valuable  in 
illustrating  the  agricultural  teaching  of  the  school  and 
should  be  referred  to  at  every  opportunity  that  they  may 
become  familiar  to  students. 


EQUIPMENT  107 

PRACTICUMS 

1.  After  study  and  comparison  of  the  various  ways  in 
which  state  aid  is  given  to  agriculture  in  the  public  high 
schools  of  the  United  States,  outline  the  legislation  along 
this  line  that  you  consider  best  suited  to  needs  and  con- 
ditions in  your  own  State. 

2.  Make  a  $50  list  of  books  for  the  agricultural  library 
of  a  high  school  of  approximately  one  hundred  pupils, 
where  a  full  four-year  course  in  agriculture  is  given,  in- 
cluding   beginning    agriculture    or    agronomy,    animal 
industry,  horticulture,  farm  mechanics,  and  farm  man- 
agement.    Select    four    agricultural    periodicals    to    be 
subscribed  for  regularly  in  such  a  school. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

BARTO,  D.  0.    The  Proper  Equipment  of  an  Agricultural  High 

School.     U.  S.  Bur.  of  Education,  1912  Bui.  No.  6.     pp.  20-27. 
DAVIS,  B.  M.    Agricultural  Education.     Chapters  3,  4,  8,  and  9. 

Chic.     University  of  Chicago  Press.     1912. 
ELLIFF,   J.   D.    Unit  in  Agriculture,    pp.   7-10.     Chic.    Row, 

Peterson  &  Co.     1911. 
Federal  Aid  for  Industrial  Education.     U.  S.  Bur.  of  Education. 

Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1908.    pp.  84-89. 
HATCH,  K.  L.    High  School  Course  in  Agriculture.     University  of 

Wisconsin  Bui.  No.  441,  High  School  Ser.  No.  12.     1911. 
MAIN,    JOSIAH.    Educational    Agriculture.    Part    3.    Western 

State  Normal  School  (Hays,  Kansas)  Bui.,  vol.  2,  No.  3.    1910. 
Movement  for  Securing  Federal  Aid.     U.  S.  Bur.  of  Education. 

Report  of  the  Commissioner  for  1910.     pp.  262-265. 
SNEDDEN,  DAVID.    Problem  of  Vocational  Education.     Chapters 

5  and  16.    Bost. .  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.     1910. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE    FIRST    YEAR    AGRICULTURAL    WORK 

HAVING  considered  in  a  general  way  the  organization 
of  the  high  school  course  in  agriculture  and  the  equip- 
ment for  it,  we  may  next  take  up  in  some  detail  the  vari- 
ous subjects  of  the  course. 

The  first  year  work  in  agriculture  must  necessarily 
lay  the  foundations  for  the  work  which  is  to  follow.  It 
must  be  elementary,  yet  scientific  and  thorough  in  its 
presentation  of  selected  topics.  Since  the  growing  of 
plants  is  the  basis  of  agriculture,  the  study  of  plant  life 
naturally  precedes  other  agricultural  study.  The  ma- 
terials of  the  first  year  agricultural  course  will  therefore 
center  about  the  growth  and  development  of  plants  and 
the  study  of  their  environment.  Even  though  we  as- 
sume what  is,  though  desirable,  not  always  the  case,  - 
that  elementary  agriculture  has  been  taught  in  the  grades 
either  as  agriculture  or  under  the  guise  of  nature  study, 
-  yet  a  more  thorough,  scientific  study  of  plant  life  and 
growth  should  be  given  during  the  first  year  of  the  high 
school  than  is  possible  in  the  elementary  or  grammar 
grades,  with  their  limited  equipment  and  unexpert  in- 
structors. 

108 


THE    FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  IOQ 

This  is  desirable  not  only  because  of  the  better  equip- 
ment available  in  both  the  high  school  laboratories  and 
library,  and  the  clearer  development  of  the  scientific 
basis  of  agriculture  possible  because  of  it,  but  also  be- 
cause of  the  possibility  of  greater  thoroughness  through 
more  frequent  and. longer  recitation  periods  and  the  im- 
proved grade  of  instruction  possible  where  the  agricul- 
tural work  is  given  by  a  trained,  scientific  agriculturist. 

This  beginning  plant  study  is  given  under  different 
names  in  different  schools.  Very  similar  work  is  known 
in  different  places  under  such  terms  as  beginning  agricul- 
ture, beginning  agronomy,  or  agronomy,  farm  crops,  agri- 
cultural botany,  general  science,  and  other  names.  In  still 
other  schools  the  work  is  split  up  and  given  in  different 
terms  under  such  heads  as  agricultural  botany,  soils, 
agricultural  chemistry,  agricultural  physics,  etc.  The 
matter  is,  to  be  sure,  more  important  than  the  name, 
yet  it  is  regrettable  that  this  lack  of  uniformity  in  nomen- 
clature exists.  From  it  arises  much  confusion  and  lack 
of  understanding  as  to  the  work  now  being  done  and 
which  it  is  desirable  to  do  in  the  beginning  and  other 
agricultural  courses  of  the  high  school. 

Moreover,  although  in  many  schools  practically  the 
same  kind  of  beginning  agriculture  work  is  taught  very 
successfully  under  various  names,  yet  in  many  cases 
the  first  year  work  is  very  unsatisfactory.  Unexpert 
teachers,  though  perhaps  well  informed  agriculturally 


110        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

and  scientifically,  lose  sight  of  the  great  purpose  of  the 
beginning  course  and  the  psychological  and  other  reasons 
which  should  determine  its  subject  matter.  They 
choose  among  the  names  applied  to  first  year  agricultural 
courses  that  which  appeals  to  them  most,  farm  crops, 
for  instance,  or  soils,  and  they  start  a  course  under 
that  name.  And  though  excellent  beginning  courses 
are  being  given  in  many  parts  of  the  country  under  such 
names,  yet  in  the  hands  of  many  teachers  who  follow 
the  name  rather  than  the  subject  matter,  such  a  course 
becomes  too  highly  specialized  for  a  beginning  course  and 
fails  to  lay  the  desired  foundation  for  the  work  of  later 
years.  Or,  going  to  the  other  extreme,  teachers  some- 
times give  preparatory  courses  so  general  that  they  take 
up  animal  life,  plant  life,  farm  mechanics,  and  farm  man- 
agement, including  so  much  that  the  course  fails  in  its 
real  purpose.  It  is  inadequate  as  a  preparation  for 
future  work,  failing  to  fix  important  basic  principles  and 
degenerating  to  a  mere  collection  of  agricultural  facts, 
the  scientific  foundation  and  principles  of  which  are 
little  understood. 

We  need  a  uniformity  of  nomenclature  and  a  certain 
degree  of  uniformity  of  subject  matter  in  our  high 
school  agricultural  course  if  a  well-organized,  well- 
balanced  course  of  study  is  to  be  secured.  Agricul- 
tural teachers'  associations  should  adopt  a  definite 
nomenclature  which  will  be  as  readily  understood  by 


THE   FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  III 

teachers  in  one  part  of  the  country  as  in  another, 
and  which  shall  be  understood  to  indicate  certain 
definite  lines  of  work.  The  time  given  to  the  vari- 
ous phases  of  work  included  in  each  course  will,  to 
be  sure,  vary  greatly  with  different  teachers  and  pupils 
and  in  different  localities.  But  there  should  be  suf- 
ficient uniformity  in  the  nomenclature  and  subject 
matter  to  make  the  character  of  the  work  in  the 
agricultural  course  in  any  school  clear  to  those  inter- 
ested in  similar  work,  even  though  they  be  at  a 
distance. 

The  name  to  be  chosen  for  the  first  year  course  is  a 
matter  of  the  greatest  difference  of  opinion,  even  among 
those  interested  in  securing  uniformity.  Beginning 
Agriculture  is  suitable,  but  has  been  so  frequently  used 
for  a  beginning  course  including  both  plant  and  animal 
study  that  there  is  some  objection  to  it  on  that  account. 
Agricultural  Botany,  though  used  for  this  course,  is  or- 
dinarily understood  to  mean  something  far  different  and 
much  more  technical  than  this  first  year's  work  is  in- 
tended to  be.  Moreover,  the  term  "  botany"  too  greatly 
limits  the  work.  Farm  Crops  is  also  undesirable  in  many 
ways.  It  is  both  too  limited  and  too  broad  a  term. 
General  Science,  though  it  describes  the  work  well,  in 
a  way,  is  objectionable  from  the  point  of  view  of  M  the 
agriculturist.  Beginning  Agronomy,  all  things  considered, 
is  perhaps  as  good  a  term  as  can  be  chosen.  For  agron- 


112        MATERIALS    AND  METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

omy,  in  a  broad  sense,  according  to  the  definition  given 
in  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Circular  32,  is  a  "  study 
of  climate,  soils,  fertilizers,  and  crops,  that  is,  of  plant 
production." 

In  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Circular  77,  an  out- 
line is  given  for  a  secondary  course  in  agronomy.  This 
deals,  as  we  should  expect,  with  plant  growth  and  de- 
velopment ;  and  though  the  outline  as  given  presupposes 
some  study  of  botany,  yet,  with  certain  modifications, 
it  may  be  adopted  as  a  basis  for  first  year  work.  Local 
conditions  and  needs  and  the  previous  preparation  of 
pupils  will,  however,  in  any  given  case  determine  the 
amount  of  time  to  be  given  to  any  topic  and  the  emphasis 
to  be  placed  upon  it.  In  actual  teaching  it  will  also  be 
found  advisable  to  change  the  order  of  topics  to  some 
extent. 

This  outline  takes  up  first  the  composition,  structure, 
physiology,  and  heredity  of  the  plant;  and  the  light, 
heat,  air,  moisture,  soils,  plant  foods,  and  repressive 
agencies  of  the  plant  environment.  This  is  followed  by 
more  or  less  study  of  the  various  classes  of  economic 
plants  and  of  individual  local  crops  and  their  rotation. 

Considering  the  outline  from  the  standpoint  of  agricul- 
ture, it  is  found  to  suit  the  needs  of  a  beginning  course 
admirably  in  a  general  way,  though,  as  has  been  said, 
it  needs  a  certain  amount  of  modification  in  arrangement 
in  actual  teaching.  It  furnishes  a  good  arrangement  for 


THE   FIRST  YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  113 

the  study  of  plant  growth  and  development  from  an 
agricultural  viewpoint  and  abundant  opportunities  for 
the  study  of  plant  environment  and  improvement.  A 
wealth  of  most  interesting  laboratory  and  field  work  is 
suggested  by  the  topics,  and  the  work  is  such  that  it 
promises  both  a  firm  foundation  for  future  work  and  a 
sure  appeal  to  students'  interests.  Although  the  outline 
may  seem  to  begin  with  topics  beyond  the  ready  com- 
prehension of  first  year  high  school  pupils,  yet  experience 
has  proved  that,  treated  in  the  right  way,  the  essential 
facts  as  to  plant  composition  and  structure  are  readily 
understood  by  pupils  of  this  grade.  Frequent  labora- 
tory demonstrations  by  the  instructor  at  the  beginning 
of  the  course  appeal  strongly  to  the  pupil's  interest  and 
enthusiasm,  and  when,  a  little  later,  individual  laboratory 
work  and  outdoor  practicums  are  taken  up  by  the  class, 
this  interest  and  enthusiasm  is  increased  and  made 
permanent. 

But  the  outline  is  also  admirable  from  another  point 
of  view,  —  that  of  the  teacher  of  science.  We  find,  on 
analysis,  that  it  may  be  made  to  furnish  an  excellent 
outline  for  a  beginning  science  course  as  well  as  for  the 
beginning  agriculture  course.  In  fact,  it  appears  to  be 
just  what  science  teachers  have  long  been  trying  to  find ; 
that  is,  a  satisfactory  introduction  to  the  science  work  of 
the  high  school. 

For  years  it  has  been  admitted  that  the  teaching  of  the 


114       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

physical  and  the  biological  sciences  in  the  high  school 
has  been  unsatisfactory  in  many  ways.  The  educational 
results  of  high  school  science  are  not  what  was  hoped 
and  predicted  when  it  was  introduced  into  the  high 
school  curriculum.  In  many  schools  the  number  of 
students  electing  such  work  is  falling  off.  The  materials 
used  are  criticized  as  not  sufficiently  related  to  the  life 
and  needs  of  students.  The  teaching  methods  em- 
ployed are  said  to  be  too  frequently  adapted  to  the  college 
rather  than  to  the  high  school.  The  results  attained  are 
often  called  unsatisfactory,  both  as  to  the  knowledge 
gained  by  the  student  and  as  to  his  attitude  toward 
further  scientific  work.  This  failure  is  ascribed  to  the 
demands  of  the  colleges  on  high  school  science  work,  to 
the  need  of  a  well-perfected  method  of  science  teaching, 
and  to  other  causes.  It  is  not  our  province  to  discuss 
these,  but  we  are  interested  in  the  high  school  science 
situation  inasmuch  as  it  has  been  proposed  to  remedy  the 
unsatisfactory  conditions  through  agriculture.  For  ex- 
ample, it  has  been  proposed  to  improve  the  high  school 
science  work  by  teaching  the  sciences  in  the  high  school 
more  as  applied  sciences.  This  is  being  advocated  by 
numerous  school  men  and  is  without  doubt  a  good 
suggestion.  It  is  still  further  urged  by  some  that  the 
applications  be  to  agriculture,  and  that  this  application 
take  the  place  of  agricultural  courses  in  the  high  school. 
Many  science  men  favor  this,  but  it  is  approved  by  but 


THE    FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  115 

few  agriculturists.  It  enriches  the  science  work  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  it  is  not  fair  to  students  who  want 
agricultural  instruction  to  give  it  to  them  in  this  way. 
Agriculture  thus  taught  would  be  unorganized  and  would 
inevitably  appear  to  the  mind  of  the  student  as  a  mere 
patchwork  of  fragments  of  the  various  sciences,  or  as  an 
appendage  to  them.  Moreover,  many  of  the  important 
facts  of  agriculture  would  not  be  taught  at  all.  For 
the  other  sciences  do  not  provide  for  instruction  in 
farm  machinery,  stock  judging,  seed  selection,  and  many 
other  topics.  Agriculture  is  itself  a  science,  and 
though  the  other  sciences  shed  a  necessary  light  upon 
it,  agriculture  should  be  taught  as  a  separate  science. 
It  is,  in  addition,  an  art,  and,  if  taught  efficiently,  other 
methods  must  be  employed  in  instruction  as  well  as  the 
ordinary  methods  of  science  teaching. 

Still  another  suggestion  made  by  school  men  some 
years  ago  for  the  improvement  of  the  science  work  in 
high  schools  was  the  giving  of  a  general  science  course  in 
the  first  year.  It  was  evident  that  one  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  in  science  teaching  lay  in  the  fact  that  the 
various  science  courses  as  taught  in  most  high  schools 
were  too  isolated  from  the  experience  of  the  pupil  and 
from  each  other.  Each  was  abstract  and  to  a  certain 
degree  helpless  within  its  own  department.  Moreover, 
the  various  sciences  used  a  language  with  which  pupils 
were  unfamiliar.  As  a  result,  the  science  work  did  not 


Il6       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

appeal  to  pupils,  nor  did  it  do  for  them  what  was 
expected  in  the  way  of  educational  training. 

With  first  year  high  school  pupils  especially,  science 
work  failed  to  prove  attractive  or  beneficial.  Such 
students  are  naturally  superficial.  Though  their  inter- 
ests spread  over  a  large  area,  they  do  not  go  very  deep. 
They  are  interested  in  the  many  wonderful  and  fascinat- 
ing things  in  the  world  about  them  and  wish  to  under- 
stand them.  They  like  to  experiment,  to  see  demonstra- 
tions. They  like  studies  related  to  life.  Formal  science 
work,  unrelated  to  life,  does  not  appeal  to  them.  It  is 
therefore  important,  during  this  first  high  school  year, 
on  the  threshold  of  the  work  in  science,  that  the  student 
be  happily  introduced  both  to  the  mysteries  and  methods 
of  science.  It  is  important  that  his  first  impressions  be 
favorable.  Otherwise  he  is  apt  to  turn  aside  from 
science  in  his  future  work  and  to  miss  much  training 
which  he  needs  and  should  have. 

Since  biology,  physiography,  and  physiology  are  more 
nearly  related  to  life  than  the  other  scientific  subjects, 
it  seems  that  these  ought  to  prove  interesting  to  first 
year  high  school  students.  Yet,  though  they  led  for 
many  years  as  first  year  science,  they  were  not  found  to 
be  wholly  satisfactory.  Though  they  deal  with  real  life 
and  conditions,  yet  observation  and  experience  show 
that  they  do  not  have  the  universal  appeal  desired. 
Moreover,  each  of  these,  to  be  most  effectively  taught, 


THE    FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  117 

requires  some  knowledge  of  the  other  sciences ;  and  each 
of  them  appeals  to  a  student  only  so  far  as  his  life  has 
turned  his  interests  in  these  directions. 

No  one  of  the  high  school  sciences,  then,  as  ordinarily 
taught,  leads  to  that  experience  which  makes  science 
seem  a  fairyland  to  the  young  pupil,  and  none  gives  him 
as  broad  a  view  as  he  should  have.  No  one  subject 
alone,  experience  seems  to  indicate,  so  stimulates  the 
imagination,  fires  the  interest,  and  engages  the  atten- 
tion as  would  a  wise  selection  from  the  whole  field  of 
scientific  knowledge.  In  view  of  this,  the  suggestion 
was  made,  something  over  a  decade  ago,  that  the  first 
year  science  work  might  well  be  a  general  introduction 
to  science,  having  its  roots  in  all  the  high  school  sciences. 
It  could  thus,  it  was  argued,  be  made  interesting,  prac- 
tical, full  of  demonstrations  and  laboratory  experiments 
which  would  appeal  to  the  interest,  arouse  the  enthu- 
siasm, and  increase  the  desire  of  the  pupil  for  more  and 
deeper  knowledge.  A  background  would  thus  be  given 
for  the  scientific  studies;  they  would  be  related  to  the 
child's  experience  and  environment  and  to  each  other ; 
and  students  would  be  prepared  for  the  more  formal 
and  specialized  study  of  the  various  branches  of  the 
high  school  sciences. 

All  over  the  country,  school  men  recognized  the  need 
for  such  a  course  and  its  advantages  as  a  preliminary 
to  future  science  study.  Courses  governed  by  these 


Il8       MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

ideas  were  introduced  in  various  places,  sometimes 
with  great  success.  But  though  the  ideal  was  good,  it 
was  soon  found  that  there  was  danger  of  giving  series  of 
disconnected  lessons  and,  unless  the  teacher  was  a  par- 
ticularly strong  one,  of  not  getting  the  desired  results. 
The  work  was  apt  to  be  unbalanced,  disconnected,  and 
too  much  influenced  by  the  teacher's  special  interests. 
There  was,  ordinarily,  too  little  emphasis  laid  on  the 
oneness  of  science.  There  was  needed  a  connecting 
thread  which  should  give  unity  and  balance  and  purpose 
to  the  work  in  the  minds  of  both  teacher  and  students. 
And  here,  we  believe,  is  where  the  agriculturist  and  the 
science  teacher  can  join  forces.  A  proper  beginning 
course  in  agriculture,  or  agronomy,  presents  work  which 
not  only  meets  the  needs  of  the  agricultural  course,  but 
which  offers  a  fitting  gateway  to  the  various  fields  of 
science.  A  beginning  course  may  be  so  taught  as  to  give 
the  student  information  concerning  the  elements  of  the 
so-called  high  school  sciences,  and  may  also  present  a 
thoroughly  unified  study  of  the  elements  of  that  science 
and  art  which  is  the  most  fundamental  of  man's  occupa- 
tions,—  agriculture.  First  year  agriculture,  of  agron- 
omy, properly  presented,  not  only  includes  direct  appli- 
cations of  botany,  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  geology, 
etc.,  but  gives  a  needed  incentive  to  study  and  interest. 
It  not  only  presents  and  teaches  certain  scientific  facts, 
but  it  provides  values  for  them.  By  using  such  a  course 


THE   FIRST   YEAR    AGRICULTURAL   WORK  1 19 

we  may  not  only  serve  the  educational  purposes  of  first 
year  agriculture  and  first  year  science  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, but  we  may  economize  both  time  and  money.  The 
same  beginning  course  may  be  given  to  all  students 
whether  they  are  to  specialize  in  agriculture,  domestic 
science,  science,  or  other  studies.  Economy  of  time, 
materials,  and  teaching  energy  thus  characterizes  the 
most  satisfactory  form  of  instruction. 

Though  as  agriculturists  we  are  primarily  interested 
in  agriculture  and  in  the  first  year  agricultural  subject  as 
a  part  of  the  high  school  agricultural  course,  yet  it  is 
both  interesting  and  gratifying  to  note  that  in  the  ideal 
beginning  agriculture  course  we  have  found  an  ideal 
general  science  course.  We  must,  however,  never  fail 
to  emphasize  the  fact  that  though  beginning  agriculture 
or  agronomy,  properly  taught,  is  general  science,  it  is 
not  merely  general  science.  It  is  something  more. 
For  while  the  average  general  science  course,  though  it 
may  serve  more  or  less  satisfactorily  as  an  introduction 
to  the  various  sciences,  lacks,  as  has  been  indicated,  both 
unity  and  purpose,  and  there  is  danger  that  it  may  prove 
merely  a  conglomeration  of  more  or  less  interesting 
scientific  facts,  the  agricultural  course,  though  it  gives  an 
ideal  introduction  to  the  various  sciences,  also  provides 
additional  values  for  the  work.  It  provides  an  economic 
as  well  as  a  cultural  motive  for  further  scientific  study. 
It  emphasizes  the  usefulness  of  scientific  knowledge. 


I2O   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

It  furnishes  an  opportunity  for  comparison  of  agricul- 
tural with  other  occupations,  thus  contributing  towards 
a  wise  choice  as  to  personal  vocation.  Better  than  the 
best  of  the  non-agricultural  general  science  courses, 
first  year  agriculture  or  agricultural  general  science  inter- 
relates the  various  special  sciences.  For  though  the 
ordinary  general  science  course  has  certain  advantages 
as  to  materials  selected  over  any  one  of  the  separate 
sciences,  yet  even  here  the  relations  of  the  different 
sciences  one  to  the  other  are  but  poorly  brought  out. 
It  is  difficult  for  the  student  to  see  the  relation  of  his 
science  studies  to  each  other  and  to  life,  their  educational 
or  practical  value.  But  first  year  agriculture,  properly 
taught,  so  draws  on  all  the  high  school  science  subjects 
that  their  educational  values  and  their  interrelations 
are  clearly  discovered  to  pupils. 

For  example,  some  knowledge  of  soils  must  come  early 
in  the  agricultural  study  of  plant  life  and  development. 
In  order  to  attain  this,  the  student  must  go  to  the  funda- 
mental earth-science,  geology,  and  to  physical  geography 
for  information  concerning  soil  formation.  Biology  also 
comes  in  here,  with  a  study  of  the  work  of  plants  and 
animals,  such  as  the  earthworm,  in  soil  formation. 
For  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  which  compose  the  soil 
and  upon  which  the  fertility  of  the  soil  depends,  the 
student  must  go  to  chemistry.  The  physical  properties 
of  soils  bring  up  a  study  of  various  facts  and  principles  of 


THE    FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  121 

physics.  The  agricultural  importance  of  the  soil  is  as 
a  part  of  the  plant's  environment.  Its  fertility  is  evi- 
denced by  its  ability  to  produce  plants.  Understanding 
of  the  growth  and  development  of  plants  necessitates  a 
knowledge  of  many  of  the  elementary  facts  of  botany. 
Successful  dealing  with  the  repressive  agencies  with 
which  plants  have  to  contend  brings  in  entomology. 
And  so  we  might  go  orfc  almost  indefinitely,  showing 
how  whatever  agricultural  topic  we  may  be  studying 
reaches  out  for  explanation  and  understanding,  not  only 
to  one,  but  to  several  of  the  sciences,  and,  in  addition,  is 
enlivened  and  made  vitally  interesting  by  its  relation  to 
human  experience  and  human  needs. 

Lastly,  in  common  with  the  best  type  of  non-agricul- 
tural general  science,  first  year  agriculture  provides  an 
interesting  and  varied  form  of  laboratory  work  and  field 
observation  at  the  beginning  of  the  high  school  course. 
The  pupil  is  thus  gradually  acquainted  with  the  more 
common  language  of  science  and  is  early  shown  the  fun- 
damental importance  of  investigational  evidence  in  all 
science  work. 

All  this  deals  with  the  value  of  the  course  for  agricul- 
tural and  science  students.  But  the  value  of  the  course 
is  not  for  them  alone.  So  much  of  agriculture  as  is 
embraced  in  a  first  year  agricultural  course  of  the  kind 
under  discussion  should  be  known  to  every  high  school 
student,  whether  boy  or  girl,  as  a  matter  of  general  in- 


122       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

telligence,  information,  and  culture.  Whether  in  the 
city  or  country,  the  high  school  girl  should  at  least  learn 
something  as  to  the  source  materials  from  which  come 
her  daily  food  supply.  Equally,  the  future  man  of  any 
occupation  should  be  educated  to  an  understanding  of  the 
most  fundamental  of  all  occupations  and  its  relation  to 
other  industries  and  vocations.1  After  this  preliminary 
year's  work,  more  specialized  work  in  either  agriculture 
or  domestic  science  can  be  logically  and  systematically 
developed  for  those  who  wish  to  elect  such  courses,  and 
the  high  school  science  course  can  be  developed  economi- 
cally, rationally,  and  pedagogically  for  science  students. 
In  addition,  those  students  who  are  not  aroused  either 
to  a  desire  for  the  special  work  in  science,  agriculture,  or 
domestic  science  will  at  least  have  received  a  little  valu- 
able training  in  habits  of  accurate  observation,  of  think- 
ing to  conclusions,  and  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the 
things  which  surround  them. 

To  agricultural  students,  then,  such  a  course  offers 
excellent  preparation  for  vocational  work;  to  science 
students  it  gives  an  admirable  preparatory  course ;  and 
for  general  students  it  serves  as  a  valuable  culture 
course. 

The  proof  of  the  asserted  values  of  such  a  course  can  be 
seen,  naturally,  only  in  actual  observation  of  its  teaching. 

1  Editorial.  Agriculture  as  First  Year  Science.  Experiment  Station 
Record,  v.  23,  No.  3,  p.  206. 


THE    FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  123 

The  reasons  for  the  appeal  which  the  work  makes  to  the 
student's  interest  are,  however,  not  hard  to  understand ; 
and  the  practical  teaching  advantages  of  the  work  are 
becoming  more  and  more  apparent  with  its  continued 
testing. 

To  show  more  clearly  how  this  first  year  agricultural 
course  may  be  made  to  serve  the  purposes  indicated,  there 
is  given  below  an  arrangement  of  work  which  has  been 
successfully  tested  by  the  writer  in  two  high  schools. 
Column  i  is  a  very  free  modification  of  the  agronomy 
outline,  in  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Circular  77,  to 
which  reference  has  previously  been  made.  Columns 
2  and  3,  parallel  with  it,  were  worked  out  in  giving  a  first 
year  agricultural  course  in  the  high  school,  and  the  mate- 
rials indicated  were  tested  with  different  classes  with 
very  satisfactory  results.  Column  i  may  be  said  to 
represent  the  agricultural  aspect  of  the  course ;  column 
2  is  made  up  of  suggestions  as  to  scientific  facts  and 
principles  which  may  be  presented  in  connection  with 
the  course,  —  that  is,  it  represents  the  general  science 
aspect  of  the  course ;  and  column  3  consists  of  sugges- 
tions as  to  experimental  work  in  the  laboratory  and 
field,  class  demonstrations  by  the  instructor,  field  trips, 
etc. 

It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  this  outline 
does  not  attempt  to  indicate  all  of  the  valuable  labora- 
tory and  demonstrational  work  and  field  practicums 


124       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

that  might  well  be  given  during  the  course.  The  topics 
in  both  columns  i  and  2  will  suggest  to  the  alert  teacher 
others  which  might  profitably  be  given.  Nor  is  it  as- 
serted that  those  chosen  are  the  best  under  all  circum- 
stances. Those  noted  are  merely  intended  to  be  sug- 
gestive, though  they  have  all  been  successfully  used  in 
giving  such  a  course  in  high  schools.  If  but  one  class 
period  per  day  is  given  to  the  work,  the  amount  of  the 
laboratory  and  field  work  possible  will  be  considerably 
less  than  that  indicated  in  the  outline,  and  it  may  be  well 
to  change  the  character  of  many  exercises.  Even  with 
two  daily  periods,  it  may  not  be  possible  to  cover  as  much 
ground.  Time  may,  however,  be  economized  by  in- 
creasing the  number  of  demonstrations  by  the  instructor 
or  by  individual  pupils.  Yet,  to  secure  the  best  results, 
a  generous  number  of  the  exercises  and  practicums 
must  be  performed  by  each  member  of  the  class. 

It  will,  obviously,  be  found  impossible  to  treat  in 
much  detail  the  scientific  facts  and  principles  listed  in 
column  2,  the  general  science  aspect  of  the  course,  in 
addition  to  doing  practical  agricultural  work.  But  a 
generous  selection  should  be  made  of  such  of  them  as 
seem  to  fit  in  best  with  the  work  and  such  as  seem  most 
needed  by  the  class  in  connection  with  present  or  as  a 
preparation  for  future  work.  The  practical  agricultural 
phases  of  the  work  and  the  attendant  practicums  and 
laboratory  work  must  overbalance  the  purely  scientific 


THE    FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  125 

aspect  of  the  work ;  and  the  agricultural  value  of  a  par- 
ticular fact  or  experiment  must  be  the  guiding  principle 
in  the  selection  of  the  materials  of  the  course.  Yet  even 
the  treatment  of  the  strictly  agricultural  topics  must 
necessarily  be  greatly  limited.  Only  the  fundamental 
principles  and  basic  facts  can  be  taken  up  under  each 
topic.  A  general  understanding  of  the  processes  of 
plant  growth  and  the  conditions  of  its  environment, 
together  with  an  appreciation  of  the  scientific  basis 
underlying  them,  some  little  knowledge  of  a  few  special 
crops,  a  fair  amount  of  deftness  in  laboratory  and  other 
practical  exercises,  ready  and  accurate  observations, 
and  the  formation  of  right  ideas  as  to  agriculture  and 
country  life,  —  this  is  as  much  as  should  be  expected 
from  the  course. 

The  work  of  the  course  will,  as  is  evident  from  the 
outline,  consist  of  lectures,  reading  assignments,  labora- 
tory demonstrations  and  experiments,  school  farm  and 
garden  work,  and  field  trips  or  excursions.  No  suitable 
textbook  is  at  present  available  for  such  a  course,  though 
certain  of  the  better  high  school  agricultural  manuals 
may  be  profitably  used  in  connection  with  some  phases 
of  the  work. 

The  amount  of  time  to  be  given  to  the  course  should  be 
not  less  than  one  class  period  of  forty  to  fifty  minutes 
daily  throughout  the  year,  and  should  preferably  be  two 
periods.  This  time  may  be  divided  between  laboratory, 


126       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


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THE    FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  141 

field,  and  class  work  as  seems  best,  but  one-third  of  the 
time  at  least  should  be  given  to  laboratory  work.  Dem- 
onstrations by  the  instructor,  field  trips,  garden  or 
greenhouse  work  and  school  farm  practicums  will  con-, 
sume  nearly  another  third  of  the  time,  leaving  not  over  a 
third  of  the  class  periods  for  recitations  and  lectures. 
Reading  or  other  assignments  should,  however,  be  made 
regularly  for  laboratory  as  well  as  for  the  regular  reci- 
tation days. 

As  a  general  rule  it  is  suggested  that  demonstrations, 
laboratory,  or  field  work  precede  the  study  of  the  reading 
assignment,  though  in  special  cases  the  order  may  be 
reversed.  Careful  written  or  printed  directions  for  all 
laboratory  and  field  work  should  be  given  students,  and 
each  student  should  keep  a  notebook  in  which  every 
laboratory  and  field  exercise  and  demonstration  is  care- 
fully recorded  in  good  English.  This  notebook  should 
contain  the  date  and  subject  of  each  exercise,  a  statement 
of  the  materials  used,  descriptions  of  the  work  done,  and 
such  illustrative  drawings  as  may  be  necessary.  In 
preparing  an  index  to  this  notebook  the  student  should 
specify  whether  the  work  is  a  laboratory  exercise,  a  field 
exercise,  or  a  demonstration  made  by  the  teacher  or 
another  student. 

The  value  of  demonstrations  by  the  teacher  or  by 
individual  students  before  the  class  should  not  be  under- 
rated, though  such  work  should  not,  of  course,  be  carried 


142        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

to  excess.  Frequently  the  demonstration  avoids  both 
loss  of  interest  and  loss  of  time,  besides  facilitating  the 
making  of  drawings  and  notes. 

The  laboratory  or  field  exercises  may  be  followed  by 
assigned  readings  on  the  topics  being  studied  and,  later, 
by  a  recitation  where  the  whole  topic  is  reviewed  and 
discussed  with  reference  to  its  bearing  on  the  home  life 
of  pupils,  the  general  community  life,  and  the  practice  of 
agriculture. 

The  excursion  or  field  trip  should  not  be  neglected  in 
this  first  year  agricultural  work,  for  it  serves  as  a  valuable 
means  of  bringing  principle  and  theory  in  contact  with 
real  conditions  and  of  dealing  with  processes  and  prod- 
ucts at  first  hand.  On  the  field  trip  or  excursion  many 
points  difficult  to  explain  and  to  understand  in  the 
classroom  are  made  clear  and  vivid.  New  light  is  thrown 
on  subjects  studied,  and  desired  information  is  fixed  in 
memory. 

All  excursions  should  be  carefully  planned  by  the  in- 
structor, and  students  should  be  given  definite  directions 
as  to  procedure  and  observations  on  the  trip.  If  possible, 
it  will  be  found  well  to  utilize  a  camera  on  such  trips, 
recording  in  pictures  the  conditions  at  places  visited. 
The  pictures  may  later  be  used  in  reviewing  the  trip  or  be 
added  to  a  permanent  collection  for  reference  or  illustra- 
tion. 

Garden  work  may,  if  desired,  be  carried  on  very  sue- 


THE    FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  143 

cessfully  in  connection  with  the  first  year  agricultural 
work  in  addition  to  the  regular  practical  exercises  of  the 
course  in  the  greenhouse  and  on  the  school  farm.  If 
such  work  is  undertaken,  considerable  latitude  may  well 
be  allowed  pupils  in  the  choice  of  crops  to  be  grown. 
Individual  plots  should  be  assigned  the  members  of  the 
class,  each  plot  or  garden  serving  as  a  special  problem  for 
the  individual  student.  Or,  if  desired,  the  same  crops 
may  be  grown  by  all  members  of  the  class ;  for  example, 
vegetables,  and  in  addition  some  special  problem  or 
additional  crop  may  be  given  each  student.  This  special 
problem  may  deal  with  the  use  of  cold  frames,  hot  beds, 
the  use  of  fertilizers,  or  the  testing  of  different  methods  of 
planting  or  of  caring  for  plants.  In  many  cases  it  may  be 
well  to  have  this  special  problem  work  carried  on  at 
home,  or  even  to  allow  the  garden  work  as  a  whole  to  be 
carried  on  at  home. 

In  the  garden  students  should  be  expected  to  apply 
the  knowledge  gained  in  the  classroom,  and  the  results 
attained  should  be  looked  upon  more  or  less  in  the  light 
of  a  test  as  to  the  ability  of  students.  The  time  given  to 
garden  work  should  come  outside  of  the  regular  class 
periods,  as  a  rule,  just  as  does  the  study  of  reading  assign- 
ments, except  where  the  work  done  is  to  teach  a  new  fact 
or  method,  and  not  merely  to  give  practice  in  carrying 
on  garden  work.  Both  the  amount  and  times  of  work  in 
the  garden  may  be  left  largely  to  students,  thus  develop- 


144       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

ing  a  sense  of  personal  responsibility  and  self-reliance, 
training  reason  and  judgment,  and  increasing  the  value 
of  the  work  as  a  test.  There  should,  however,  be  fre- 
quent inspection  of  gardens  by  the  instructor,  occasional 
class  talks  about  the  garden  work,  and  judicious  indi- 
vidual criticism  and  advice  where  needed. 

The  products  of  the  gardens  may  be  disposed  of  in 
various  ways.  If  vegetables  are  raised,  they  may  be 
donated  to  the  domestic  science  department  of  the  school 
and  used  by  the  cooking  classes,  thus  correlating  the 
agricultural  and  domestic  science  work.  Or  the  vege- 
tables may  be  donated  to  the  pupil's  family.  If  the  school 
has  an  agricultural  club,  the  vegetables  may  be  marketed 
by  a  committee  of  the  club  or  of  the  class  and  the  proceeds 
turned  over  to  the  club,  after  deducting  the  expense  of 
seeds,  etc.  In  some  cases  a  stall  has  been  rented  at  the 
town's  public  market,  and  the  products  of  the  school 
garden  have  been  sold  there.  Still  other  excellent  plans 
will  suggest  themselves  to  suit  special  conditions  and  the 
products  grown.  But  on  no  account  should  the  disposal 
of  products  be  neglected  and  waste  permitted. 

On  a  part  of  the  agricultural  grounds  of  the  school 
should  be  demonstration  plots  devoted  to  the  growing 
of  desirable  introductions  of  farm  crops  new  to  the 
locality  and  to  new  varieties  of  common  crops.  Rotation 
and  fertilizer  demonstration  plots  should  also  be  given  a 
place  on  the  school  farm,  illustrating  the  needs  of  the 


THE    FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  145 

soil  and  of  different  crops,  the  effect  of  different  kinds 
of  fertilizers  on  plant  growth  and  yields,  the  effect  of 
food  supply  on  variation  and  heredity,  etc.  These 
demonstration  grounds  will  prove  valuable  in  illustrating 
the  work  of  the  first  as  well  as  of  other  years,  and  all 
students  should  have  an  opportunity  to  do  more  or  less 
work  on  the  grounds  and  to  become  familiar  with  them, 
though  their  main  care  will  devolve  upon  the  person  in 
charge  of  the  work  of  the  school  farm. 

In  addition,  a  part  of  the  agricultural  grounds  may 
profitably  be  given  to  a  field  museum,  or  crop  garden, 
where  as  many  as  possible  of  the  chief  species  of  agricul- 
tural crops  of  the  state  are  grown  in  plots  arranged  ac- 
cording to  their  family  relationships,  as,  the  leguminosae, 
the  graminae,  solanaceae,  etc.  This  crop  garden  will 
doubtless  be  as  much  used  by  the  botany  class  as  by 
the  agricultural  class,  but  will  be  very  valuable  to  both. 
If  possible,  wild  forms  of  plants  from  which  cultivated 
crops  have  been  developed  should  also  be  illustrated  in 
the  crop  garden. 

The  equipment  for  the  course  must  necessarily  include 
many  of  the  materials^nd  some  of  the  apparatus  of  the 
biology,  botany,  chemistry,  physics,  and  other  science 
departments  of  the  high  school,  together  with  some 
special  agricultural  equipment.  If  the  science  and 
agricultural  teachers  are  willing  to  cooperate,  the  added 
expense  of  the  course  will,  however,  be  comparatively 


146        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

small.  The  same  microscopes  may  serve  the  biology 
and  the  agricultural  courses;  many  of  the  same  speci- 
mens may  serve  both  for  biology  and  agriculture  and  for 
geology  and  agriculture;  much  of  the  same  apparatus 
may  serve  both  chemistry  and  agriculture  and  physics 
and  agriculture. 

A  greenhouse,  or,  in  some  climates,  both  a  greenhouse 
and  a  lath-house,  will  be  needed  for  the  plant  propaga- 
tion and  other  work.  These  will  also  be  used  for  the 
horticultural  classes,  however,  and  their  cost  should  not 
be  charged  to  the  equipment  for  the  first  year  agriculture 
class  alone. 

Samples  of  fertilizers  will  probably  be  gladly  donated 
to  the  school  by  fertilizer  manufacturers,  though  it  will  of 
course  be  necessary  to  purchase  fertilizers  for  garden 
tests,  etc.  Soil  samples,  seed  samples,  and  many  of  the 
needed  materials  for  laboratory  work  may  be  collected 
by  the  students. 

Tools  for  gardening  will  need  to  be  purchased,  but  these 
will  also  be  used  by  other  agricultural  classes.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  purchase  some  little  special  agricultural 
equipment,  as  that  for  soil  study.  Most  of  the  other  appa- 
ratus and  materials  of  the  course  will  be  found  in  any  high 
school  well  equipped  for  science  work.  After  once  starting 
the  agricultural  work  in  a  school,  valuable  collections  of 
illustrative  specimens  of  seeds,  soils,  etc.,  may  soon  be 
gathered  and  will  form  a  valuable  part  of  the  equipment. 


THE    FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  147 

In  addition,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  this  as  in 
other  high  school  agricultural  courses,  the  community 
contains  much  illustrative  material  which  should  not 
be  neglected  in  instruction.  When  studying  seeding 
and  tillage,  the  farm  implement  houses  should  be  visited. 
When  studying  plant  propagation,  visits  should  be  made 
to  local  nurseries.  Valuable  material  for  studying  plant 
heredity  and  plant  improvement  may  be  found  on  many 
farms  and  in  many  gardens.  .Drainage,  irrigation,  soil 
formation,  soil  types,  plant  diseases,  the  study  of 
special  crops,  —  all  offer  inviting  opportunities  for 
valuable  field  trips  and  observations  in  the  community 
surrounding  the  school. 

The  library  equipment  for  the  first  year  agricultural 
work  should  include  a  wide  range  of  books  and  bulletins. 
Fortunately,  there  is  a  wealth  of  material,  much  of  which 
can  be  had  for  the  asking.  The  teacher  should  select 
and  secure  from  the  lists  of  publications  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  State  Experi- 
ment Stations  such  bulletins  and  circulars  as  promise  to 
be  most  helpful  in  the  work  of  the  course.  Those  suited 
to  the  comprehension  of  high  school  pupils  should  be 
given  the  preference,  though  more  technical  publica- 
tions will  also  be  needed  for  the  use  of  the  teacher. 

Among  books  there  may  well  be  included  at  least  two 
or  three  of  the  best  high  school  botanies,  physics,  chemis- 
tries, biologies,  physical  geographies,  and  geologies; 


148        MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

the  best  of  the  elementary  and  secondary  agriculture 
texts  dealing  with  plant  life  and  environment  and  farm 
crops;  and  a  few  standard  agricultural  books  dealing 
with  the  topics  of  the  course,  as  fertilizers,  irrigation, 
drainage,  farm  crops,  soils,  plant  diseases,  and  economic 
insects,  together  with  the  standard  Cyclopedia  of 
American  Agriculture. 

In  addition,  the  teacher  will  find  it  most  helpful  to 
secure  from  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  from  ex- 
tension and  agricultural  education  departments  of  col- 
leges, from  normal  schools,  state  boards  of  agriculture,  and 
state  boards  of  education,  as  many  as  possible  of  the  vari- 
ous publications  giving  illustrative  lessons  or  labora- 
tory exercises  in  agriculture.  Though  none  of  these 
publications  contains  as  large  or  as  varied  a  number  of 
exercises  as  will  be  needed,  yet  the  teacher  will  find  valu- 
able suggestions  in  many  of  them. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  a  list  of  library  equipment 
which  will  prove  ideal  for  the  first  year  agricultural 
course  under  all  conditions.  The  following  list  of  publi- 
cations giving  illustrative  lessons  and  practicums  will, 
however,  be  found  useful ;  as  will  also  the  list  of  books, 
many  of  which  should,  together  with  two  or  three  good 
texts  each  of  botany,  biology,  physics,  chemistry,  physi- 
ography, and  geology,  be  secured.  Many  others  not  on 
the  list  would  also  prove  very  helpful.  No  list  of  in- 
formational bulletins  and  circulars  of  the  experiment 


THE   FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  149 

stations  and  the  government  on  the  topics  of  the  course 
is  given,  as  such  a  list  can  readily  be  made  out  by  any 
teacher  who  secures  their  lists  of  publications. 

PUBLICATIONS  GIVING  ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS,  LABORATORY 
EXERCISES,  AND  FIELD  PRACTICUMS,  MANY  OF  WHICH  ARE 
ADAPTED  TO  THE  FlRST  YEAR  AGRICULTURAL  WORK  IN  THE 
HIGH  SCHOOL.  (Many  other  useful  exercises  will  be  found  in 
science  and  agricultural  textbooks.) 

Cornell  Nature  Study  Leaflets.    Published  in  several  different 

series  and  with  varying  titles  by  the  New  York  State  College 

of  Agriculture  of  Cornell  University. 
Course  in  Agriculture  for  High  Schools  and  Academies  in  Maine. 

Prepared  by  Dean  Wm.  Kurd,  College  of  Agriculture,  Univer- 
sity of  Maine,  for  the  State  Superintendent  of  Schools.     1909. 
Course  in  Agriculture  for  the  High  Schools  of  Michigan.     Michigan 

Agricultural  College,  Department  of  Agricultural  Education 

Bui.  No.  i,  1910;  No.  7,  1911. 
Elementary  Course  in  Horticulture  for  the  Schools  of  Michigan. 

S.  W.  Fletcher.     Published  by  the  State  Superintendent  of 

Public  Instruction  as  Bui.  28.    1908. 
Elementary  Laboratory  Study  in  Crops  for  the  Schools  of  Michigan. 

J.   A.  Jeffery.     Published  by  the  State  Superintendent  of 

Public  Instruction  as  Bui.  26.     1907. 
Elementary  Laboratory  Study  in  Soils  for  the  Schools  of  Michigan. 

Published  by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

1908. 
Elements  of  Agriculture  for  Public  Schools.     Missouri  State  Board 

of  Agriculture,  Monthly  bulletin,  v.  4,  No.  5.     1904. 
Elements  of  Physical  Science  as  Applied  in  Home,  School  and 

Farm  Life.    F.  D.  Barber.    Published  by  the  Illinois  State 

Normal  School,  Normal,  Illinois. 


150   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Exercises  in  Elementary  Agriculture,  —  Plant  Production.    Office 

of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  1 86.     1907. 
Exercises  in  Elementary  Agriculture  for  Rural  Schools.     Prepared 

for  the  Maine  State  Education  Department  by  J.  E.  McClin- 

tock  and  E.  D.  Ward,  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the 

University  of  Maine.     1910. 
Experimental  Studies  of  Plant  Growth.     B.  M.  Davis.     Teachers' 

Bui.  No.  2,  Ohio  State  Normal  College.     (Oxford,  Ohio.) 

Miami  Bui.,  Ser.  7,  No.  i.     1908. 
Experiments  with  Plants  and  Soils.    F.  E.  Edwards.    University 

of  California  Cir.  58.     1910. 

Forestry  in  Nature  Study.     Farmers'  Bui.  468.     1911. 
Laboratory  Exercises  in  Secondary  School  Agriculture.     Maine 

State  Department  of  Education.     1912. 
Manual  of  Agriculture  for  the  Public  Schools  of  Vermont.    State 

Department  of  Education.     1911. 
Normal  School  Instruction  in  Agriculture.    Office  of  Experiment 

Stations  Cir.  90.     1909.  * 

One  Hundred  Experiments  in  Elementary  Agriculture  for  Cali- 
fornia  Schools.     R.   O.   Johnson.     Published  by   the   State 

Normal  School,  Chico,  California.     1908. 
Potato    Studies    for   Schools.     J.   W.   Hungate.     State   Normal 

School,   Cheney,   Washington.      Department  of  Agriculture 

Bui.  A,  No.  2.     1912. 

Practical  Exercises  in  Agriculture  for  Public  Schools.    Purdue  Uni- 
versity, School  of  Agriculture.     1904. 
Principles  of  Plant  Production.     University  of  Missouri  Public 

School  Bui.  No.  2.     1906.     (Circular  of  Information  No.  15 

rev.) 

Propagation  of  Plants.    Farmers' Bui.  157.     1907. 
Public  School  Agriculture.    Massachusetts  Agricultural  College, 

Department  of  Agricultural  Education.     1909. 
School  Exercises  in  Plant  Production.     Farmers'  Bui.  408.   1910. 
School  Garden,  The.     Farmers'  Bui.  218.     1909. 


THE   FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  151 

School  Lessons  on  Corn.    Farmers'  Bui.  409.     1910. 

Secondary  Course  in  Agronomy.    Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

Cir.  77.     1908. 
Seeds  and  Seedlings.    New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and 

Mechanic  Arts  School  Bui.  No.  3.     1908. 

Seed  Testing.    New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts  School  Bui.  No.  4.     1908. 
Simple  Exercises  Illustrating  Some  Applications  of  Chemistry  to 

Agriculture.    Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  195.     1908. 
Soil.    University  of  Missouri  Rural  Education  Series  Bui.,  v.  10, 

No.  10.     1909. 
Soil  and  Its  Relation  to  Plants.    B.  M.  Davis.    Teachers'  Bui. 

No.  i,  Ohio  State  Normal  College.     (Oxford,  Ohio.)     Miami 

Bui.,  Ser.  6,  No.  3.     1907. 
Soil  Primer.    Kansas  State  Agricultural  College.     "  Agricultural 

Education,"  v.  3,  No.  12. 

Soil  Studies.    New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts  School  Bui.  No.  2.     1908. 
Soils.    Hampton  (Va.)  Leaflet,    v.  4,  No.  8.     1908. 
Studies  of  Corn  and  its  Uses.     University  of  Illinois  Agricultural 

College  Extension  Bui.  1908. 
Syllabus  for  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools.    New  York  State 

Education  Department.     1910. 
Ten  Lessons  on  the  Study  of  Indian  Corn.    University  of  Missouri. 

1909. 
Tree  Growing  in  the  Public  Schools.    E.  B.  Babcock.    University 

of  California  Cir.  59.     1911. 
Use  of  the  Score  Card.    Missouri  State  Normal  School  (Cape 

Girardeau,  Mo.)  Bui.,  v.  2,  No.  2.     1910. 
Use   of   Illustrative   Material   in   Teaching   Agriculture.    U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbook.     1905.     pp.  257-274. 
Year  of  Agriculture  in  a  Rural  Vermont  High  School.    H.  A. 

Farrar.    Middlebury  College  (Middlebury,  Vt.)  Bui.,  v.  5. 
.    No.  5.     1911. 


152    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

GOOD  BOOKS  FOR  THE   FIRST  YEAR  AGRICULTURAL  REFER- 
ENCE COLLECTION.      (Good  high  school  texts  in  botany,  chem- 
istry, etc.,  should  also  be  included  in  this  collection,  as  mentioned 
above.) 
BAILEY,  L.  H.,  ed.     Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.    4  v. 

N.  Y.     Macm.     1907-1909. 

BAILEY,  L.  H.    Lessons  with  plants.    N.  Y.     Macm.     1006. 
BAILEY,  L.  H.     Manual  of  Gardening.     N.  Y.     Macm.     1910. 
BAILEY,  L.  H.     Plant  Breeding.    N.  Y.     Macm.     1910. 
BAILEY,  L.  H.    Principles  of  Agriculture.     N.  Y.    Macm.     1909. 
BARTO,  D.  O.     Manual  of  Agriculture.    Bost.    D.  C.  Heath  & 

Co.     1910. 
BROOKS,  W.  P.    Agriculture.    3  v.    Springfield,  Mass.    Home 

Corresp.  School.     1905. 

BURKETT,  C.  W.    Soils.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.     1911. 
CALL,  L.  E.,  and  SCHAFER,  E.  G.     Laboratory  Manual  of  Agri- 
culture.   N.  Y.     Macm.     1912. 
CLUTE,  W.  N.     Agronomy :  a  course  in  practical  gardening  for 

high  schools.     Bost.     Ginn  &  Co.     1913. 
COLEMAN,  J.  B.,  and  ADDYMAN,  F.  T.     Practical  Agricultural 

Chemistry.     N.  Y.     Longmans,  Green,  &  Co.     1910. 
COMSTOCK,  J.  H.    Insect  Life.    N.  Y.    D.  Apple  ton  &  Co.     1901. 
DAVENPORT,    E.    Domesticated    Plants    and    Animals.    Bost. 

Ginn  &  Co.     1910. 

DAVIS,  C.W.   Rural  School  Agriculture.   N.Y.   Orange  Judd.  1911. 
ELLIFF,  J.  D.    A  Unit  in  Agriculture.     Chic.    Row,  Peterson  & 

Co.     1911. 
ELLIOT,  C.  G.    Practical  Farm  Drainage.    N.  Y.    John  Wiley  & 

Sons.     1908. 
GOODRICH,  C.  L.     First  Book  of  Farming.    N.  Y.    Doubleday, 

Page  &  Co.     1910. 
HALLIGAN,  J.  E.     Fundamentals  of  Agriculture.    Bost.    D.  C. 

Heath  &  Co.     1911. 
HILGARD,  E.  W.    Soils.    N.  Y.     Macm.     1906. 


THE   FIRST   YEAR   AGRICULTURAL   WORK  153 

HILGARD,  E.  W.,  and  OSTERHOUT,  W.  J.    Agriculture  for  Schools 

of  the  Pacific  Slope.     (Accompanied  by  Babcock  and  Steb- 

bins'  Elementary  School  Agriculture ;   a  manual  of  exercises. 

1911.)    N.  Y.    Macm.     1910. 
HOPKINS,    C.    G.    Soil   Fertility   and   Permanent   Agriculture. 

Bost.     Ginn  &  Co.     1910. 
HUNT,  T.   F.      Cereals  in  America.      N.   Y.      Orange  Judd. 

1911. 

HUNT,  T.  F.    Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America.    N.  Y.    Or- 
ange Judd.     1911. 
JACKSON,  C.   R.,  and  DAUGHERTY,  L.  S.    Agriculture  through 

the  Laboratory  and  School  Garden.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd. 

1911. 

KING,  F.  H.    The  Soil.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1911. 
KING,  F.  H.    Physics  of  Agriculture.     Madison,  Wis.    F.  H. 

King.     1904. 

KING,  F.  H.    Irrigation  and  Drainage.    N.  Y.     Macm.     1909. 
LASSAR-COHN.     Chemistry  hi  Daily  Life.    Phil.  J.  B.  Lippincott. 

1909. 
LYON,  T.  L.,  and  FIPPIN,  E.  O.    Principles  of  Soil  Management. 

N.  Y.    Macm.     1911. 
LYON,  T.  L.,  and  MONTGOMERY,  E.  G.    Examining  and  Grading 

Grains.    Bost.     Ginn  &  Co.     1907. 

MANN,  A.  R.    Beginnings  of  Agriculture.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1911. 
NOLAN,  A.  W.      One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Agriculture.      Chic. 

Row,  Peterson  &  Co.     1911. 
OSTERHOUT,  W.  J.  V.    Experiments  with  Plants.    N.  Y.    Macm. 

1911. 

ROBERTS,  I.  P.    Fertility  of  the  Land.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1909. 
ROTH,  F.  R.    First  Book  of  Forestry.    Bost.     Ginn  &  Co.     1902. 
SANDERSON,  E.  D.    Elementary  Entomology.    N.  Y.    John  Wiley 

&  Sons.     1912. 
SANDERSON,  E.  D.    Insect  Pests  of  Farm,  Garden,  and  Orchard. 

N.  Y.    John  Wiley  &  Sons.     1912. 


154         MATERIALS    AND    METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

STEVENS,  F.  L.,  and  HALL,  J.  G.    Diseases  of  Economic  Plants. 

N.  Y.    Macm.     1910. 
SNYDER,    H.     Chemistry    of    Plant    and    Animal    Life.    N.  Y. 

Macm.    1905. 

SNYDER,  H.    Soils  and  Fertilizers.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1908. 
VIVIAN,   A.    First  Principles  of  Soil   Fertility.    N.  Y.    Orange 

Judd.     1912. 

VOORHEES,  E.  B.    Fertilizers.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1910. 
WARREN,  G.  F.    Elements  of  Agriculture.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1910. 
WEED,  C.  M.    Farm  Friends  and  Farm  Foes.    Bost.    D.   C. 

Heath  &  Co.     1910. 
WILKINSON,  J.  W.    Practical  Agriculture.     N.Y.     Am.  Bk.  Co. 

1909. 
WTILSON,  A.  D.,  and  WARBURTON,  C.  W.     Field  Crops.    St.  Paul, 

Minn.     Webb  Pub.  Co.     1912. 

PRACTICUM 

Outline  not  less  than  ten  consecutive  agricultural 
general  science  lessons  covering  some  one  phase  of  the 
first  year  work  as  outlined  in  the  preceding  chapter. 
Suggest  laboratory  or  field  practicums  and  reading  ref- 
erences to  accompany  these  lessons. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

BRICKER,  G.  A.    Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  High  School. 

Chapter  4.     N.Y.     Macmillan.     1911. 
Editorial,  Experiment    Station  Record,    September,   1910,    pp. 

201-209. 
PEET,  C.  E.    What  Shall  the  First  Year  High  School  Science  Be  ? 

National    Education    Association,    Proceedings,    1909,    pp. 

809-16. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL ;    THE  GENERAL 
LIVE   STOCK  COURSE 

THE  nomenclature  and  character  of  animal  husbandry 
courses  in  high  schools  vary  greatly.  As  a  rule,  but  one 
course  is  given  during  the  four  years,  and  this  is  general  in 
nature,  including  some  study  of  types  and  breeds,  stock 
judging,  feeds  and  feeding,  care  and  management,  dairy- 
ing, etc.  It  is  taught  under  such  names  as  breeds  of 
live  stock,  animal  husbandry,  animal  production,  domes- 
tic animals,  animal  industry,  farm  animals,  agriculture, 
economic  zoology,  and  others.  When  the  animal  hus- 
bandry work  is  divided  into  two  or  more  courses  in  the 
high  school,  there  is  usually  a  general  course  in  live 
stock  study  and,  in  addition,  a  course  in  dairying  or  in 
poultry  culture,  or  both.  We  also  occasionally  find 
special  courses  in  stock  judging,  stock  feeding,  breeding, 
apiculture,  and  other  animal  husbandry  subjects.  These 
last,  however,  are  usually  introduced  to  suit  local  condi- 
tions and  needs,  and  we  shall  not  consider  them  here. 
The  courses  in  dairying,  poultry  culture,  and  animal 
production  or  general  live  stock  are  so  frequently  given 


156   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

and  of  such  universal  interest  that  they  may  well  be 
considered  in  some  detail. 

The  name  animal  production,  or  animal  husbandry, 
should  preferably  be  chosen  for  a  general  course  including 
a  study  of  types  and  breeds  and  the  care  and  manage- 
ment of  domestic  animals.  Such  a  course  may  usually 
best  be  placed  in  the  second  year  of  the  high  school  (see 
Chapter  III),  though  it  is  frequently  given  during  the 
third  year.  If  this  is  the  only  animal  husbandry  course 
given,  it  should  preferably  run  throughout  the  school 
year ;  but  if  a  special  course  such  as  that  in  dairying  or 
poultry  work  is  given,  the  general  course  may  be  limited 
to  the  first  half  year  and  a  special  course  be  given  during 
the  second  half.  Or  in  some  cases  where  a  special  live 
stock  course  is  given  in  addition  to  the  general  course, 
it  may  seem  desirable  to  give  the  general  course  three 
periods  per  week  throughout  the  year  and  the  special 
course  two  days  per  week,  alternating.  This  arrange- 
ment has  special  advantages  in  the  case  of  poultry  work, 
particularly  if  poultry  is  kept  on  the  school  grounds. 
Students  thus  have  the  advantage  of  studying  and  of 
practicing  the  care  and  management  of  poultry  at  all 
times  of  the  year  and  under  many  different  conditions. 

Another  possible  arrangement  is  having  a  dairy  course 
in  the  first  half  of  the  year,  followed  by  the  general  course 
in  animal  production  the  second  half.  The  object  of  this 
is  to  begin  with  the  study  of  products  rather  than  of  their 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL    157 

producers,  with  the  more  rather  than  the  less  familiar, 
and  to  emphasize  the  economic  factor  at  the  beginning 
of  the  animal  husbandry  studies. 

The  materials  of  the  general  course  in  live  stock  or 
animal  production  should  consist  of  an  introductory 
study  of  types  and  breeds  of  the  common  domestic 
animals  followed  by  a  study  of  their  feeding  and  care, 
together  with  more  or  less  consideration  of  their  im- 
provement or  breeding.  The  emphasis  laid  upon  the 
different  phases  of  the  work  will,  however,  vary  consider- 
ably in  different  localities,  depending  upon  the  main 
live  stock  interests  of  the  surrounding  country  and  the 
special  needs  of  the  community. 

As  in  the  case  of  agronomy  or  any  other  course,  the 
instructor  should  prepare  a  careful  outline  of  the  work 
at  the  very  beginning,  emphasizing  the  study  of  the 
kinds  of  live  stock  in  which  the  community  is  most  in- 
terested. This  need  not  be  rigidly  adhered  to  at  all 
times,  but  should  be  so  carefully  prepared  that  it  will 
seem  wise  to  do  so  for  the  most  part. 

Various  good  outlines  for  the  general  animal  produc- 
tion course  in  the  high  school  have  been  prepared  and 
printed.  Some  of  the  best  of  these  are  given  at  the  end 
of  this  chapter.  Suggestions  may  be  obtained  from  all  of 
them,  though  probably  none  of  them  is  ideal. 

The  New  York  State  outline  (1907)  emphasizes  feeds 
and  feeding,  —  the  nutrition  of  domestic  animals,  —  but 


158    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

to  their  housing  and  care  in  other  ways  it  gives  practically 
no  attention.  The  improvement  of  types  and  breeds 
is  touched  on,  but  very  briefly.  Animal  products  are 
studied,  but  no  attention  is  given  to  their  marketing. 

The  Michigan  outline  (1910)  seems  to  emphasize  the 
general  care  and  improvement  of  live  stock.  Feeds  are 
perhaps  studied  more  from  the  practical  and  less  from  the 
scientific  standpoint  than  would  be  the  case  were  the 
New  York  outline  followed. 

The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  outline  in  Circular 
60  (1904),  for  rural  common  schools,  might  well  be 
adapted  to  high  school  use.  It  is,  however,  very  brief 
and  indicates  a  more  elementary  study  of  feeds  and  feed- 
ing than  is  desirable,  besides  omitting  any  study  of  live 
stock  improvement  or  breeding.  The  preparation  and 
care  of  products  and  their  marketing  is  especially 
mentioned  in  the  outline. 

The  Wisconsin  outline  (1911),  intended  to  cover  a 
year's  work  with  one  recitation  per  day,  emphasizes 
stock  judging  and  gives  special  attention  to  poultry. 
In  addition,  it  gives  a  prominent  place  to  the  study  of 
insects ;  but  this  is  contrary  to  the  general  procedure  and 
seems  unwise  in  many  ways.  Their  study  under  "  re- 
pressive agencies"  (p.  138)  during  the  first  high  school 
year  is  undoubtedly  preferable.  Feeds  and  feeding  are 
not  included  in  the  general  live  stock  or  animal  husbandry 
course  at  all,  but  are  studied  in  a  course  in  agricultural 


ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL        159 

chemistry  which  is  given  during  the  fourth  year  of  the 
high  school.  The  study  of  dairy  products,  and  their 
testing,  is  also  put  in  the  course  in  agricultural  chemistry. 

The  outline  by  J.  D.  Elliff,  of  the  University  of  Mis- 
souri, is  intended  only  as  an  outline  for  a  part  of  a  year's 
work  in  general  agriculture.  It  might,  however,  very 
well  be  used  as  a  basis  for  a  special  animal  husbandry 
course,  if  desired. 

In  January,  1911,  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
published  a  valuable  circular,  prepared  by  Professor 
H.  R.  Smith,  head  of  the  Animal  Husbandry  depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Nebraska  College  of  Agri- 
culture, outlining  a  course  in  animal  production. 
This  circular  is  entitled  "  A  Secondary  Course  in  Animal 
Production,"  and  in  it  are  outlined  155  lessons  which, 
with  necessary  reviews,  examinations,  and  a  few  supple- 
mentary field  trips  or  lessons  of  a  purely  local  nature, 
will  occupy  a  full  school  year  of  thirty-six  weeks,  five 
recitations  per  week.  The  course  as  outlined  deals 
almost  entirely  with  types  and  breeds  and  the  feeding 
and  care  of  farm  animals,  although  some  time  at  the 
close  of  the  year  is  devoted  to  the  special  topic  of  dairy- 
ing. In  the  introduction  to  the  circular  the  author 
states  that  where  it  is  undesirable  to  give  a  full  year 
to  the  general  course  in  animal  production,  it  can  be 
shortened  by  omitting  certain  of  the  less  important  les- 
sons or  by  studying  only  the  most  general  facts  relating 


l6o   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

to  animals  having  small  commercial  value  in  the  lo- 
cality. Thus,  for  example,  there  are  many  localities 
where  the  two  lessons  on  ponies,  asses,  and  mules  could 
be  omitted,  because  these  animals  are  there  so  seldom 
seen  or  used  as  to  be  of  no  economic  importance.  Again, 
there  are  regions  where  cattle  raising  runs  almost  en- 
tirely to  one  type,  —  either  the  beef  type  or  the  dairy 
type.  In  such  places  the  emphasis  should  be  placed 
on  the  important  type  of  cattle,  and  only  such  time  as  can 
be  spared  should  be  given  to  the  less  important  types. 
The  same  considerations  should  govern  the  study  of 
sheep,  swine,  and  other  animals  or  topics  included  in  the 
outline,  where  it  is  desired  to  devote  only  a  part  of  the 
year  to  the  course. 

Very  full  outlines  for  a  general  course  in  animal  hus- 
bandry and  for  special  study  of  beef  cattle  and  their  prod- 
ucts, swine,  bees  and  the  production  of  honey,  are  given 
in  Minnesota  Department  of  Public  Instruction  Bulletin 
38,  "  Outlines  for  Secondary  Courses  in  Agriculture." 
Suggestions  as  to  materials,  apparatus,  and  library 
equipment  needed  for  the  work  accompany  these  outlines. 

One  forty-  to  fifty-minute  period  per  day  will  ordina- 
rily prove  sufficient  for  the  work,1  though  on  one  day  per 

1  In  a  number  of  high  schools,  however,  a  daily  double  period  is  con- 
sidered necessary  for  the  work  when  only  given  during  half  of  the  year. 
Bakersfield,  Cal.,  is  an  example.  At  the  John  Swaney  School,  McNabb, 
111.,  three  double  periods  per  week  and  two  recitation  periods  are  given 
to  the  work. 


ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL        l6l 

week  this  time  should  be  extended  to  a  double  period 
for  stock  judging,  field  trips,  and  other  practicums. 
If  possible,  the  last  period  of  the  day  should  be  used  for 
the  course,  so  that  on  days  when  excursions  or  field  trips 
are  taken,  or  stock  judging  or  other  practicum  work  is 
done,  extra  time  can  be  taken  if  necessary  without  in- 
terfering with  other  recitations.  And  though  one  practi- 
cum day  per  week  will  usually  give  enough  time  for  such 
work  in  either  a  year  or  half-year  of  animal  husbandry, 
where  the  class  meets  five  periods  per  week,  yet  it  may 
be  desirable  when  studying  types  and  breeds  to  take  oc- 
casional extra  periods  for  stock  judging, — or  rather  to  use 
some  of  the  regular  recitation  periods  for  extra  practice  in 
this  work.  It  will  probably  also  be  desirable  occasionally 
to  take  excursions  or  field  trips  on  Saturdays,  especially 
when  trips  are  to  farms  at  some  distance  or  when  it  is 
desired  to  inspect  stock  at  some  particular  time  of  day. 
As  a  textbook  to  be  used  in  the  animal  husbandry 
course,  C.  S.  Plumb's  "  Beginnings  in  Animal  Hus- 
bandry" and  M.  W.  Harper's  "  Elements  of  Animal 
Husbandry"  are  both  satisfactory.  Plumb's  "Types 
and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals"  and  Harper's  " Manual 
of  Farm  Animals  "  have  been  used,  but  are  adapted  to 
college  rather  than  high  school  classes.  But  even  though 
a  textbook  is  used,  it  should  be  supplemented  by  lectures 
(see  p.  74)  and  by  reading  assignments  in  bulletins  and 
agricultural  reference  books. 


1 62       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

As  to  the  "  laboratory  manual,"  giving  practical  ex- 
ercises in  general  live  stock  study,  there  is  none  for  the 
animal  husbandry  course  in  the  high  school.  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations  Circular  100  suggests  excellent 
practicums,  but  cannot  be  considered  as  a  manual  of 
live  stock  exercises.  A  large  number  of  the  exercises 
noted  will  undoubtedly  be  used,  but  definite  directions 
for  the  work  must  be  prepared  for  students  in  each  case ; 
and  it  will  be  desirable  to  have  additional  exercises  to 
suit  local  needs.  In  addition,  score  cards  should  be 
provided  for  the  stock  judging  work  of  the  course.  If 
possible,  copies  of  Purdue  University  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  Circular  29,  "Stock  Judging  for  Be- 
ginners," and  of  the  Cape  Girardeau,  Missouri,  State 
Normal  School  Bulletin  on  "  The  Use  of  the  Score  Card  in 
Rural  Schools,"  should  be  secured  for  each  member  of  the 
class.  A  sufficient  number  of  J.  A.  Craig's  "  Judging 
Livestock"  should  also  be  available  for  consultation  by 
students. 

Valuable  hints  as  to  practical  exercises  may  also  be 
found  in  such  publications  as  the  New  York  State  De- 
partment of  Education  "  Syllabus  in  Agriculture  for 
Secondary  Schools  "  ;  "  Course  in  Agriculture  for  the  High 
Schools  of  Maine,"  arranged  under  the  direction  of  the 
State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction;  Michigan 
Agricultural  College  Department  of  Agricultural  Educa- 
tion Bulletins  no.  i  and  7,  "Course  in  Agriculture  for  the 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL   163 

High  Schools  of  Michigan";  D.  J.  Crosby's  "Use  of 
Illustrative  Material  in  teaching  Agriculture  in  Rural 
Schools"  (in  the  1905  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Yearbook) ;  Purdue  University  School  Bulletin  giving 
"Practical  Studies  in  Agriculture  for  the  Common 
Schools" ;  and  many  others. 

In  addition,  the  practical  exercises  given  in  Elliff's 
"Unit  in  Agriculture"  and  at  the  end  of  chapters  on  live 
stock  in  Davenport's  "Domestic  Animals  and  Plants," 
Warren's  "Elements  of  Agriculture,  "^and  in  other  good 
secondary  and  elementary  agriculture  texts  should  be 
noted. 

In  general,  the  practicums  will  consist  of  trips  to  see 
various  kinds  of  stock  at  farms  of  the  community,  at  the 
local  fair,  etc. ;  judging  of  individual  animals  owned 
in  the  vicinity ;  competitive  judging,  following  consider- 
able preliminary  practice ;  trips  to  see  buildings  for  the 
different  farm  animals,  noting  details  of  construction, 
stalls,  yards,  and  other  equipment ;  a  trip  to  the  nearest 
packing  house  center,  if  it  can  be  arranged,  for  observa- 
tion of  methods  of  slaughtering  animals,  handling  car- 
casses, and  packing  house  by-products;  trips  to  local 
markets  to  see  the  different  cuts  of  meat;  visiting 
dairies,  creameries,  and  cheese  factories.  Practical  worfc 
in  the  care  and  management  of  some  farm  animal  or 
animals  should  also  be  included,  where  possible.  This 
may  be  at  the  school  if  the  school  is  equipped  with 


1 64       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

stock,  or  it  may  be  at  the  homes  of  the  community. 
Individual  home  experiments  in  the  feeding  and  man- 
agement of  stock  will  prove  of  especial  value  to  students, 
throwing  them  largely  on  their  own  responsibility  and 
developing  initiative,  good  judgment,  and  self-reliance. 
All  such  work  should,  however,  be  planned  and  carried 
out  by  students  under  the  careful  supervision  of  the 
instructor. 

The  recitation  and  review  quiz  in  the  animal  hus- 
bandry course  will  be  conducted  as  in  other  courses. 
The  lecture  will  serve  a  purpose  similar  to  that  of  the 
lecture  in  any  other  course,  gathering  up  and  presenting 
in  suitable  form  material  which  it  is  desirable  to  give  to 
students  and  which  is  not  readily  available  to  them  in 
proper  form  in  their  text  or  reference  books.  A  form  of 
lecture  which  can  be  utilized  with  especial  profit  in 
this  course  is  the  lantern  lecture,  illustrating  types  and 
breeds,  points  in  stock  judging,  conformation  of  animals, 
buildings  for  farm  animals,  etc.  The  lantern  used  should 
be  one  adapted  to  showing  pictures  in  books  and  bulletins, 
as  well  as  slides;  for  there  is  a  great  wealth  of  good 
illustrations  in  many  of  the  animal  husbandry  publica- 
tions which  will  doubtless  be  available  for  use. 

Throughout  the  course  the  methods  of  instruction 
should  take  cognizance  of  the  fact  that  animal  husbandry, 
like  other  agricultural  subjects,  is  both  a  science  and  an 
art;  it  deals  both  with  a  body  of  organized  laws  and 


ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL        165 

principles  and  with  their  application  to  actual  problems. 
We  must  not  only  see  to  it  that  pupils  acquire  informa- 
tion from  lectures  and  printed  matter;  they  must  be 
given  constant  opportunity  for  reference  to  the  animals 
studied  and  for  observation  of  the  various  phenomena 
concerning  which  information  is  sought  and  given. 
Pupils  must  be  taken  to  the  farm  and  farm  animals  for 
demonstration  and  proof  of  facts  acquired  in  the  school- 
room. Opportunity  must  also  be  given,  as  far  as  is 
practicable,  for  actual  experience  in  the  judging  of  live 
stock  and  in  their  care  and  management.  The  latter 
will,  as  has  been  indicated,  probably  have  to  consist 
of  individual  assignments  to  be  carried  out  at  home,  and 
may  vary  widely  in  nature.  But  some  first-hand  ex- 
perience and  knowledge  of  farm  animals,  in  the  way  of 
feeding  or  other  experiments  or  practicums  in  their  care 
or  observation,  should  be  acquired  by  every  pupil.  It 
not  only  emphasizes  knowledge  acquired  in  the  class- 
room, but  gives  ability  to  do,  —  that  is,  to  use  the  ac- 
quired information.  And  practice  or  repetition  of  this 
first-hand  experience  with  animals  gives  to  the  pupil  not 
only  ability  to  do  certain  things,  but  facility,  accuracy, 
and  efficiency  in  his  doing. 

The  equipment  for  the  animal  husbandry  work  must 
naturally  vary  greatly  under  different  conditions. 
Much  of  the  material  used  will  be  found  on  the  farms  of 
the  community.  In  addition,  there  should  be  a  school- 


1 66   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

room  so  screened  as  to  be  easily  and  quickly  darkened ; 
a  set  of  animal  charts  (which  may  be  made  in  the  art 
department  of  the  school,  copied  from  government 
bulletins) ;  a  supply  of  score  cards  for  the  various  types 
of  farm  animals  (which  may  be  printed  by  the  local 
printer) ;  a  good  lantern  with  an  abundant  supply  of 
animal  slides ;  and  if  possible  a  few  good  animal  models.1 

It  is,  of  course,  taken  for  granted  that  any  school  giving 
a  four  year  course  in  agriculture  has  some  land  available 
for  agricultural  purposes,  and  it  is  extremely  desirable 
that  the  school  own  some  live  stock.  The  kind  and 
amount  will  necessarily  depend  largely  upon  the  re- 
sources of  the  school.  (See  Chapter  XII,  "The  School 
Farm.")  In  any  case  it  will,  however,  be  necessary  to 
draw  largely  upon  the  community  for  materials  for 
observation  and  practicums  for  this  course. 

If  no  special  dairy  course  is  given  at  the  school,  some 
testing  of  milk  and  dairy  products  should  be  done 
in  the  general  animal  husbandry  course.  A  Babcock 
tester,  milk  and  cream  bottles,  Farrington  test  tablets, 
lactometers,  etc.,  should  therefore  be  available  for  use. 
If  a  special  dairy  course  is  given,  such  work  may 
best  be  omitted  from  the  general  live  stock  course. 

The  agricultural  library  should  of  course  be  supplied 

1  Score  cards,  lantern  slides,  anatomical  and  veterinary  charts,  and 
models  of  certain  farm  animals  may  be  obtained  from  the  Central  Scien- 
tific Co.,  Chic.,  111. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL    167 

with  an  up-to-date  collection  of  government  and  experi- 
ment station  publications  on  live  stock  topics,  selected 
from  the  lists  issued  by  them.  The  school  should  take 
regularly  one  or  more  of  the  best  live  stock  periodicals 
and  the  more  important  material  of  each  number  should 
be  noted  in  the  live  stock  class  as  soon  as  convenient 
after  the  number  is  received.  In  addition,  there  should  be 
a  good  collection  of  books  on  live  stock,  adapted  to  the 
comprehension  of  high  school  pupils.  If  funds  are  avail- 
able, any  or  all  of  the  following  list  may  well  be  included, 
after  securing  the  indispensable  Bailey's  Cyclopedia,  al- 
ready listed  with  the  books  for  first  year  agriculture. 

BRIGHAM,  A.  A.    Progressive  Poultry  Culture.     Cedar  Rapids, 

la.    The  Torch  Press.     1908. 

COBURN,  F.  D.     Swine  in  America.     N.  Y.     Orange  Judd.     1909. 
CRAIG,  R.  A.    Diseases  of  Swine.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.     1906. 
CRAIG,  J.  A.    Judging  Livestock.    Ames,  la.    J.  A.  Craig.     1901. 
DAVENPORT,    E.    Domesticated    Animals    and    Plants.    Bost. 

Ginn  &  Co.     1910. 
FARRINGTON,  E.  H.,  and  WOLL,  F.  W.    Testing  Milk  and  Its 

Products.     Madison,  Wis.     Mendota  Pub.  Co.     1911. 
HARPER,  M.  W.    Elements  of  Animal  Husbandry.    N.  Y.    Macm. 

1913- 
HARPER,   M.   W.    Manual   of   Farm   Animals.    N.  Y.    Macm. 

1911. 
HENRY,  W.  A.    Feeds  and  Feeding.     Madison,  Wis.    W.  A. 

Henry.     1911. 

JOHNSTONE,  J.  H.  S.    The  Horse  Book.     Chic.    Sanders.     1911. 
JORDAN,  W.  H.    Feeding  of  Animals.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1911. 
MAYO,  N.  S.     Care  of  Animals.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1903. 


1 68       MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

MAYO,  N.  S.    Diseases  of  Animals.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1910. 
PLUMB,  C.  S.    Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry.    St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Webb  Pub.  Co.     1912. 
PLUMB,    C.    S.    Types   and   Breeds   of   Farm   Animals.    Bost. 

Ginn  &  Co.     1906. 

REYNOLDS,  M.  H.    Veterinary  Studies.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1910. 
ROBERTS,  I.  P.    The  Horse.    N.  Y.     Macm.     1905. 
ROBINSON,  J.  H.    Poultry  Craft.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.     1899. 
SHAW,  T.    Animal  Breeding.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.     1911. 
SHAW,  T.    Feeding  Farm  Animals.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.     1907. 
SHAW,  T.    Management  and  Feeding  of  Cattle.    N.  Y.    Orange 

Judd.     1910. 
SMITH,  H.  R.     Profitable  Stock  Feeding.     Lincoln,  Neb.     H.  R. 

Smith.     1906. 
WILCOX,   E.    V.     Farm  Animals.     N.  Y.     Doubleday,  Page  & 

Co.     1906. 
WING,    J.    E.     Sheep    Farming    in    America.     Chic.    Breeders' 

Gazette.     1912. 

In  addition  to  the  school  work  in  animal  husbandry, 
the  agricultural  teacher  will  here  find  an  excellent  op- 
portunity for  community  work.  Evening  lectures  may 
be  given  on  the  improvement  of  live  stock  or  other  live 
stock  topics  of  particular  interest  locally ;  lantern  slides 
and  pictures  may  be  shown ;  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  may 
be  organized  for  the  raising  of  poultry,  feeding  experi- 
ments, etc. ;  short  courses  on  the  kind  of  live  stock  most 
raised  in  the  community  or  in  which  there  is  the  most 
interest,  may  be  given ;  home  experiments  may  be  super- 
vised ;  plans  for  buildings  may  be  prepared ;  and  so  on. 
All  such  work  will  not  only  help  the  community  but 


ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY   IN    THE   HIGH   SCHOOL        1 69 

will  react  to  the  benefit  of  the  school  and  repay  many- 
fold  the  effort  exerted  in  carrying  it  on. 

OUTLINES  FOR  ANIMAL  PRODUCTION  OR  GENERAL 
LIVE  STOCK  COURSES 


ANIMALS  AND  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

(An  outline  taken  from  the  New  York  State  Department  of 
Education  Syllabus  in  Agriculture  for  Secondary  Schools. 
1907.) 

A .  The  kinds  of  domesticated  animals. 

1.  Classification  of  common  domestic  animals. 

Mammals :  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  horses,  asses,  mules,  dogs. 
Birds :  fowls,  ducks,  geese,  pigeons,  turkeys. 
Insects:  bees. 

2.  Zoological  relationships:   origin,  history  of  domestication, 

purposes  for  which  kept,  races,  breeds,  and  varieties 
of  each. 

B.  Nutrition  of  domestic  animals. 

1.  Relations  of  plant  and  animal  life. 

2.  The  chemical  elements  of  nutrients :  their  number  and  oc- 

currence in  plants  and  animals. 

3.  The  compounds  of  animal  nutrients. 

a.  Water:    in  living  plants,   feeding  stuffs,   the   animal. 

Its  occurrence  and  functions. 

b.  Mineral  matters  (ash)  in  the  plant  and  hi  the  animal: 

amount  and  distribution. 

c.  The  nutrients. 


170       MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

C.  Nutrition  (continued).    The  nutrients  in  detail. 

1.  Protein. 

a.  Nomenclature. 

6.  Examples. 

c.  Composition. 

d.  Physical  characteristics. 

e.  Variability. 
/.  Occurrence. 
g.  Distribution. 

2.  Carbohydrates. 

a.  Examples. 

b.  Composition. 

c.  Physical  characteristics. 

d.  Nitrogen  —  free  extract  and  crude  fiber. 

e.  Starches. 
/.  Sugars. 

g.  Occurrence  and  distribution. 

3.  Fats  and  oils. 

a.  Character  and  composition. 

b.  Occurrence  and  distribution. 

4.  Functions  of  the  nutrients. 

a.  Protein. 

b.  Carbohydrates  and  fat. 

c.  Relations  to  one  another. 

d.  Nutritive  ratio. 

e.  Food  as  a  source  of  energy. 
/.  Heat  relations. 

D.  The  digestion  and  utilization  of  food. 

1.  The  digestive  tract. 

2.  Ferments. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY   IN   THE   HIGH  SCHOOL        171 

3.  Conditions  influencing  digestion. 

a.  Palatableness. 

b.  Quantity. 

c.  Stage  of  growth  of  plant. 

d.  Effect  of  methods  of  preservation  and  storage. 

e.  Grinding. 

/.  Addition  of  salt. 

g.  Frequency  of  feeding  and  watering. 

h.  Determination  of  digestibility. 

4.  Distribution  and  use  of  digested  food ;  also  elimination  of 

wastes. 

E.  Foods. 

1.  Pasturage. 

2.  Forage  and  fodders:    green  and  dried  fodders,   soiling, 

silage. 

3.  Root  and  tubers. 

4.  Concentrated  feeding  stuffs :  grains  and  seeds,  commercial 

by-products. 

F.  Rations. 

1 .  Food  requirements  of  different  animals  for  different  purposes. 

a.  For  maintenance. 

b.  For  work. 

c.  For  growth  (young  animals). 

d.  For  flesh  (fattening). 

e.  For  milk,  eggs,  wool,  etc. 

2.  Combination  of  fodders  into  rations. 

a.  Amount  of  nutrients. 

b.  Amount  of  water  (succulence). 

c.  Relative  proportions  of  protein  and  non-protein   (nu- 

tritive ratio). 


172   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

d.  Palatableness. 

e.  Effect  on  product. 
/.    Economy. 

G.  Animal  products. 

1.  Flesh:  beef,  mutton,  pork,  poultry;   relation  between  the 

raising  of  different  animals  for  various  products ;  com- 
position of  animal  products;  quality  as  determined 
by  age  and  condition  of  animals;  relative  suitability 
as  food  for  man ;  economy. 

2.  Eggs :   composition ;   quality  as  affected  by  food  of  fowls ; 

methods  of  preservation ;  economy. 

3.  Milk. 

a.  Source;     kind   of   animal;      physiology   of   secretion; 

methods  of  milking. 

b.  Quality;    chemical   and   physical   properties;     natural 

variations  as  affected  by  animal,  by  food,  by  environ- 
ment, by  adulteration. 

c.  Determination  of  specific  gravity,  fat,  organisms,  im- 

purities, adulteration. 

H.  The  animal.     (The  animal  form  as  related  to  production.) 

1.  Animal  mechanism  in  relation  to  speed  and  force,  types  of 

animals  for  production  of  milk  and  beef,  wool  and 
mutton,  eggs,  and  flesh.  Correspondence  of  individual 
to  type.  Standards  or  scales  of  points;  methods  of 
scoring. 

2.  Selection  of  animal  with  reference  to  future  generations; 

heredity ;  variation ;  evolution  of  modern  forms  from 
simpler  types. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY   IN   THE   HIGH  SCHOOL        173 


B 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  OR  LIVE  STOCK 

(From  "A  Course  in  Agriculture  for  the  High  Schools  of 
Michigan,"  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  Department  of 
Agricultural  Education  Bui.  i,  1910.) 

The  part  of  this  bulletin  dealing  with  the  animal  husbandry 
course  in  the  high  school  was  prepared  by  Professor  R.  S.  Shaw 
and  Professor  A.  C.  Anderson,  and  reads  as  given  below. 


Animal  husbandry 

or 
live  stock. 


Poultry. 


Dairying. 


Breeds. 


Cattle. 
Horses. 
Sheep. 
Swine. 


Uses. 
Care. 

Feeding. 
Breeding. 
Judging. 
Marketing. 

Breeds  and  breeding. 
Incubators. 
Care  and  feed. 
Marketing. 

Care  of  milk. 

Tests,  Babcock,  etc. 

Testing  individual  cows. 

Separators. 

Butter  making. 

Cheese. 


174        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTION 

(Outline  from  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Circular  60,  "  The 
Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  Rural  Common  Schools." 
1904.) 

Draft. 

Trotting. 

Roadsters, 

etc. 
Dairy. 

Domestic  ani-  ~""~        Beef, 

mals,     their 

types      and  f  Wool, 

breeds.  eep'      \  Mutton. 


Horses. 


Cattle. 


Bring  out  leading 
characteristics  of 
one  or  two  lead- 
ing breeds  of  each 
type  represented 
in  a  given  region. 


2.  Care  and  man- 
agement   of 
domestic 
animals. 


Swine. 
Poultry. 
m  Bees. 

Only   the   most  general  state- 
ments   regarding    the    food 
requirements  of  different  ani- 
Feeding.  mals  and  for  different  pur- 

poses, and  exercises  in  com- 
pounding rations  suitable  to 
a  given  region. 

Water  supply. 
Exercises. 
Shade. 

Hygiene.  Conditions  of  inclosures  as  to 
(i)  comfort,  (2)  ventilation, 
(3)  cleanliness. 

Preparation  and  care  of  product. 
Marketing  of  product. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL        175 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

(From  University  of  Wisconsin  Bui.  No.  441,  high  school  series 
No.  12,  1911.  "The  High  School  Course  in  Agriculture.") 

Course  given  during  the  third  year  of  high  school  agricultural 
work.  Daily  throughout  the  year. 

1.  Breeds  of  live  stock. 

a.  Principles  of  breeding. 

b.  History  of  progress  made  in  animal  breeding. 

c.  Standard  breeds. 

d.  Breed  characteristics. 

2.  Stock  judging. 

a.  The  "points"  on  the  score  card. 

b.  Lantern  slide  demonstrations. 

c.  Practice  in  judging  stock  easily  available. 

d.  Visits  to  best  herds  in  the  vicinity. 

3.  Poultry. 

a.  Poultry  as  an  economic  factor  in  farm  and  city  life. 

b.  The  care  and  management  of  poultry. 

c.  Feeding  poultry  and  marketing  poultry  products. 

d.  Judging  poultry. 

4.  Insects. 

a.  Life  history  of  insects. 

b.  Collecting  and  preserving  specimens. 

c.  Insects  injurious  to  our  frjuits  and  grains. 

d.  Means  of  controlling  raVa^of  insects. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  DETAILS  OF  WORK 

i.  Types  and  breeds  of  live  stock. 

The  work  in  this  subject  may  well  consist  of  a  study  of  the 
history  of  the  various  breeds  and  classes  of  live  stock,  the  methods 


176       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

used  to  develop  these  breeds,  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
standard  breeds  and  the  special  merits  of  each.  This  intensive 
study  of  animal  life  in  the  high  school  is  confronted  by  special 
difficulties.  If  the  school  is  equipped  with  pictures,  charts,  a 
well-chosen  collection  of  animal  slides  and  a  good  lantern,  these 
difficulties  may  be  largely  overcome.  (See  Plumb's  "Types  and 
Breeds  of  Farm  Animals.") 

2.  Stock  judging. 

The  theoretical  part  of  this  work  should  be  done  in  the  class- 
room by  the  use  of  charts,  lantern  slides,  and  the  score  card. 
Practice  may  be  obtained  from  the  scoring  of  individual  animals 
owned  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school  or  borrowed  from  more  distant 
breeders.  Competitive  judging  work  can  be  done  by  occasional 
visits  to  the  best  herds  and  flocks  in  the  neighborhood.  (See  Craig's 
"Stock  Judging.") 

3.  Poultry. 

The  study  of  poultry  may  easily  be  made  a  part  of  the  high 
school  curriculum.  The  birds  themselves  may  be  brought  into  the 
classroom.  Specimens  of  each  of  the  leading  varieties  of  chickens 
may  usually  be  found  within  easy  reach  of  the  school.  Poultry 
and  its  proper  feeding,  care,  and  management  should  be  studied 
as  an  economic  factor  in  city  and  rural  life.  Practice  should  be 
given  in  judging  poultry  by  means  of  the  score  card.  The  best 
methods  to  be  used  in  preparing  poultry  and  its  products  for 
market  should  receive  attention.  (See  Robinson's  "Poultry 
Craft.") 

4.  Insects. 

This  work  should  begin  with  a  study  of  the  life  history  of  a  few 
of  the  common  insects  and  should  include  practice  in  the  collection, 
mounting,  and  preservation  of  specimens.  Insects  like  the  plum 
curculio  and  the  codling  moth,  such  as  are  injurious  to  our  native 
fruits,  should  be  studied,  and  those  that  cause  serious  damage  to 


ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY   IN   THE   HIGH    SCHOOL        177 

farm  crops  should  receive  due  attention.  The  laboratory  work 
may  well  include  the  preparation  and  application  of  insecticides. 
Other  means  of  controlling  these  pests  should  be  studied.  A 
school  collection  of  injurious  insects  and  examples  of  their  destruc- 
tive work  should  be  made.  (See  Comstock's  "Insect  Life.") 

E 

ANIMAL  PRODUCTION 

(From  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Circular  100,  "  A  Secondary 
Course  in  Animal  Production."     1911.) 

Types  and  breeds  of  farm  animals. 

Horses. 

Cattle. 

Sheep  and  goats. 

Swine. 

Poultry. 
Feeding  and  care  of  farm  animals. 

Stock  feeds. 

Horses. 

Dairy  cattle. 

Beef  cattle. 

Sheep. 

Swine. 

Poultry. 
Dairying. 

F 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

(From   J.    D.    Elliff,    "A   Unit   in    Agriculture."    Chic.    Row, 
Peterson  and  Co.     1911.) 

I.  The  Horse. 

i.  Origin  and  brief  history. 


178        MATERIALS   AND    METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

2.  The  two  principal  types. 

a.  The  speed  type. 

b.  The  draft  type. 

3.  Breeds  of  horses. 

a.  Draft  breeds  —  Percheron,  Clydesdale,  English  Shire. 

b.  Roadsters  —  American  trotter,  American  saddle  horse, 

English  thoroughbred,  Hackney  French  coach. 

4.  Care  of  horses. 

II.  Cattle. 

1.  Origin  and  brief  history. 

2.  The  two  principal  types. 

a.  Dairy  cattle. 

b.  Beef  cattle. 

3.  Breeds  of  cattle. 

a.  Beef  breeds  —  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Polled  Hereford, 

Aberdeen-Angus,  Polled  Durham,  Galloway. 

b.  Dairy  breeds  —  Holstein-Friesian,  Jersey,   Guernsey, 

Ayrshire,  Dutch  Belted,  Brown  Swiss. 

c.  Dual  purpose  breeds  —  Shorthorn   (milking  strains), 

Devon,  Red  Polled. 

4.  Cattle  products  —  meat,  milk,  leather,  glue,  etc. 

III.  Sheep. 

i    The  two  types. 

a.  Wool-producing  type. 

b.  Mutton-producing  type. 

2.  Principal  breeds. 

a.  Wool   producing  —  American   Merino,    Delaine,    and 

Rambouillet. 

b.  Mutton    producing  —  Shropshire,     Southdown,     and 

Cotswold. 

3.  Care  of  sheep. 

IV.  Swine. 

i.  A  study  of  the  following  principal  breeds :  Poland-China, 


ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL        179 

Berkshire,  Duroc-Jersey,  Chester  White,  Hampshire, 
Tamworth,  Large  Yorkshire. 

2.  Care  of  swine. 

3.  Diseases  of  swine  and  how  to  control  or  prevent  them. 

a.  Hog  cholera. 

b.  Tuberculosis. 

V.  Poultry.     Chickens. 

1.  The  four  principal  types. 

a.  Meat  type. 

b.  Egg  type. 

c.  General  purpose  type. 

d.  Ornamental  type. 

2.  Breeds. 

a.  Meat  type  or  Asiatic  class  —  Brahma,  Cochin,  Lang- 

shan. 

b.  Egg  type  or  Mediterranean  class  —  Leghorn,  Minorca, 

Black  Spanish. 

c.  General  purpose  or  American  class  —  Plymouth  Rock, 

Wyandotte,  Rhode  Island  Red. 

3.  Care  of  poultry. 

a.  Feeding  chickens. 

b.  The  incubator. 

c.  The  chicken  house. 

4.  Poultry  and  poultry  products,  their  growing  importance, 

value  and  use. 

VI.  Live  stock  judging. 

1.  Horse. 

a.  Heavy  horse. 

b.  Light  horse. 

2.  Cattle. 

a.  Beef  cattle. 

b.  Dairy  cattle. 


l8o        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

3.  Sheep. 

a.  Mutton. 

4.  Swine. 

VII.  Feeding. 

1.  Composition  of  food  plants:    (a)  water,  (6)  ash,  (c)  pro- 

tein, (d)  fats  and  carbohydrates. 

2.  Percentage  of  each  in  different  plants. 

3.  Function  of  each  constituent. 

4.  Composition  of  animal  tissue.     (Compare  with  animal 

food  plants.) 

5.  Digestion  and  palatability  of  foods. 

6.  The  balanced  ration. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

1.  Determining  what  animals  shall  be  grown  on  the  farm. 

2.  Importance  of  selecting  only  the  best  breeds. 

3.  Economy  in  feeding  —  the  balanced  ration. 

4.  Study  of  comparative  value  of  common  foods  at  current 

prices. 

G 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

(Outline  from  "Course  in  Agriculture  for  High  Schools  in  Maine." 
1909.    pp.  18-19.) 

i.  Classification. 

a.  Cattle. 

Dairy. 

Beef. 

Dual  purpose. 

b.  Sheep. 

Fine  wool. 
Mutton. 


ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL        l8l 

c.  Swine. 

Fat  hogs. 
Bacon  type. 

d.  Horses. 

Saddle  horses. 

Roadsters. 

Coach  or  carriage  type. 

Draft  type. 

Ponies. 

2.  Animal  breeding. 

a.  History  of  breeds,  their  formation,  etc. 

(i)  Demonstrate  by  use  of  stock  in  the  neighborhood. 

b.  The  fundamental  laws  of  breeding. 

(1)  Heredity. 

(2)  Inbreeding  —  good  and  bad  results. 

(3)  Prepotency. 

Individual. 

Breed  —  value  to  the  stock  breeder. 

(4)  Selection. 

According  to  merit. 

According  to  pedigree  and  relationship. 

(5)  Prenatal  influence  of  sire.    Of  dam. 

c.  The  value  of  pure-bred  sires. 

d.  The  up-grading  of  herds  or  flocks  by  the  use  of  pure-bred 

sires  upon  the  animals  already  on  the  farms  in  the 
neighborhood. 

e.  Stock  scoring  and  judging.     Principles  and  practice. 
/.  Methods  of  keeping  breeding  and  performance  records. 
g.  A  study  of  pedigrees. 


1 82         MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

(Adapted  from  Circular  69,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.) 

Foods. 

1.  Nature  of  feed  as  related  to  the  animal. 

2.  Constituents. 

a.  Refuse. 

b.  Edible  portions. 

(1)  Water. 

(2)  Nutrients, 
(a)  Protein. 
(6)  Fats. 

(c)  Carbohydrates. 

(d)  Mineral  matter  (ash). 

3.  Functions. 

4.  Classes. 

a.  Roughage  —  kinds. 

b.  Concentrates  —  kinds,  composition,  etc. 

5.  Composition  of  foods. 

6.  Digestibility. 

7.  Effects. 

a.  On  condition  of  the  animal. 

b.  On  the  product. 

8.  Manurial  value. 

Feeding  standards. 

Food  requirements  —  feeds  for  — 

Maintenance. 

Growth. 

Meat. 

Fattening. 

Wool  and  hair. 

Milk. 

Work. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL        183 

Rations. 

Compounding. 
Methods  of  use. 
Economy. 

Systems  of  feeding. 
Dairy  cattle. 
Beef  cattle. 
Sheep. 
Swine. 
Horses. 

Effect  of  food  on  — 
Condition  of  animal. 
Product. 

Practice  in  feeding  different  kinds  of  animals. 
PRACTICUMS 

1.  Outline  a  half-year  high  school  course  in  animal 
husbandry  adapted  to  stated  conditions  as  to  locality, 
size  of  school,  available  equipment,  etc.     State  approxi- 
mate number  of  recitations  to  be  given  to  each  topic  of 
the  course. 

2.  Summarize  lectures  and  outline  practicums  to  be 
used  in  teaching  any  chosen  topic  in  the  animal  hus- 
bandry course,  as  beef  cattle. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

Course  in  Agriculture  for  the  High  Schools  of  Michigan.  Michi- 
gan Agricultural  College,  Department  of  Agricultural  Educa- 
tion Bui.  7.  1911.  pp.  38-40. 

SMITH,  H.  R.  Secondary  Course  in  Animal  Production,  pp.  5-7. 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Cir.  100.  1911. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

DAIRY   WORK   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL 

ASSUMING  that  definite  animal  husbandry  work  begins 
with  the  second  year  in  the  high  school,  the  dairy  course 
may  well  be  given  in  either  the  first  or  second  semester 
of  that  year.  In  some  schools  it  may  be  preferable  to 
give  the  general  live  stock  course,  dealing  with  types 
and  breeds  of  farm  animals  and  their  care  and  improve- 
ment, during  the  first  semester,  thus  providing  a  good 
general  survey  of  the  animal  husbandry  field  as  a  basis 
for  the  work  which  is  to  follow.  In  this  case  dairying 
will  usually  be  given  during  the  second  semester  of  the 
same  year.  In  other  schools  it  is  argued  that  dairying 
should  be  made  the  initial  course  in  animal  husbandry, 
dealing  largely,  as  it  does,  with  the  study  of  the  univer- 
sally familiar  dairy  products. 

Good  arguments  may  be  advanced  for  either  plan. 
The  last  is  clearly  in  accordance  with  pedagogical  princi- 
ples, enabling  us  to  proceed  from  a  beginning  study  of 
certain  well-known  animal  products  to  the  study  of  what 
is  less  known,  —  the  kinds  and  care  of  their  producer, 
the  dairy  cow.  From  the  study  of  this  type  of  domestic 
animal,  —  that  is,  from  the  familiar  cow,  —  we  may  pro- 

184 


DAIRY   WORK   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL  185 

ceed  in  a  following  course  to  the  study  of  other  probably 
less  known  domestic  animals.  Students  usually  have  a 
good  apperceptive  basis  for  the  study  of  dairying,  since 
it  deals  largely  with  familiar  things.  Treating  largely  of 
products  of  economic  use,  from  which  profit  may  be 
made,  the  economic  factor  may  effectively  be  utilized  in 
presenting  the  work.  The  dairy  course  includes  much 
laboratory  work,  —  actual  doing  of  things,  —  and  ap- 
peals strongly  to  the  adolescent  mind.  It  arouses  in- 
terest and  curiosity,  and  larger  classes  in  later  animal 
husbandry  and  other  agricultural  courses  are  said  to 
result  from  it  as  an  initial  course.  Lastly,  the  study  of 
the  dairy  cow  forms  an  excellent  basis  for  the  study  of 
the  types,  breeds,  and  care  of  other  farm  animals. 

The  dairy  course  should,  rightfully,  be  a  popular  one 
in  any  high  school  attempting  to  give  agricultural 
instruction.  Dairy  products  are  universally  used  and 
should  be  of  almost  equal  interest  to  the  town  dweller 
and  to  the  countryman,  to  the  boy  and  to  the  girl,  to 
students  specializing  in  agriculture  and  to  those  who  are 
taking  other  courses.  The  general  principles  of  dairying, 
including  the  production  and  care  of  milk,  are  facts  that 
any  well-informed  person  ought  to  know  more  or  less 
about,  since  milk  and  other  dairy  products  are  used  in 
every  household.  The  dairy  course  should  therefore  be 
freely  open  to  all  students,  regardless  of  any  preparatory 
work  in  types  and  breeds  of  farm  animals. 


1 86       MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

If  there  are  large  numbers  of  students  desiring  to  take 
the  work,  both  boys  and  girls,  it  may  perhaps  be  well 
to  divide  the  class  into  sections,  having  a  girls'  section 
and  a  boys'  section.  In  such  case  the  work  in  the  girls' 
section  would  probably  emphasize  the  composition,  care 
and  handling  of  milk,  town  and  city  public  milk  supplies, 
the  products  derived  from  milk,  and  the  use  of  milk  in 
the  home ;  while  the  boys'  section,  though  including  all 
those  things,  might  perhaps  emphasize  the  care  and  man- 
agement of  the  dairy  cow  and  herd,  which  is  more  briefly 
touched  upon  in  the  girls'  section.  Or  there  might  be  a 
division  into  mixed  sections  of  boys  and  girls,  one  for 
students  taking  the  agricultural  course,  the  other  for 
general  students.  In  many  high  schools,  however, 
even  though  there  are  large  numbers  of  both  boys  and 
girls  taking  the  dairy  work,  it  may  not  be  advisable  to 
divide  the  class  in  this  way.  In  such  cases,  numbers  and 
available  laboratory  equipment  and  the  convenience  of 
the  instructor  would  be  the  factors  determining  any  divi- 
sion into  sections. 

The  material  chosen  for  the  dairy  course  will  naturally 
be  much  the  same  in  different  schools,  though  the  em- 
phasis placed  on  topics  may  vary  widely  in  different 
localities  or  even,  in  case  of  division  of  classes  into 
sections,  in  the  same  school.  The  work  should  include, 
among  other  topics,  an  elementary  study  of  the  com- 
position of  milk,  butter,  etc. ;  methods  of  testing  milk, 


DAIRY   WORK   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL  187 

cream,  butter,  buttermilk,  and  other  dairy  products; 
the  manufacture,  care,  marketing,  and  uses  of  dairy 
products;  planning  of  dairy  buildings;  dairy  sanita- 
tion ;  the  dairy  type  of  cow ;  and  the  care  and  manage- 
ment of  the  dairy  herd. 

Unless  the  topics  to  be  taught  are  prescribed  and  fully 
outlined  by  state  or  other  school  authorities,  the  teacher 
should  carefully  and  completely  outline  the  work  of  this, 
as  of  other  courses,  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  semester. 
At  the  close  of  this  chapter  are  given  outlines  of  dairy 
work  as  presented  in  various  secondary  schools  of  the 
country.  None  of  these  is  ideal,  but  all  of  them  are 
suggestive;  and,  together  with  any  others  available, 
they  should  be  studied  by  the  agricultural  teacher  plan- 
ning to  give  a  course  in  dairying  in  the  high  school. 

A  more  extended  outline  than  those  noted  here, 
and  a  very  good  one,  is  given  in  Bulletin  38  of  the 
Minnesota  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  on  pages 
65  to  66.  This  provides  for  a  full  year's  work. 

The  material  having  been  decided  upon,  it  must  then 
be  so  arranged  as  to  present  a  well-organized,  well- 
balanced  course.  To  each  part  of  the  work  should  be 
assigned  the  amount  of  time,  the  number  of  recitations, 
which  can  best  be  afforded  for  it  and  which  the  impor- 
tance of  the  topic  warrants.  Laboratory  work  and 
practicums  should  be  planned.  Lectures  and  reading 
assignments  should  be  outlined.  Circumstances  may 


1 88        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

alter  the  plans  of  the  course  somewhat,  —  and  the  teacher 
should  not  consider  them  iron-clad  by  any  means,  — 
but  they  should  be  a  check  upon  the  work  and  should 
enable  him  to  keep  the  work  better  balanced  than  it 
would  otherwise  be.  In  addition,  they  will  probably 
result  in  more  work  actually  being  done  than  would 
otherwise  be  the  case. 

In  accordance  with  the  pedagogical  principle  of  al- 
ways proceeding  from  the  known  to  the  less  known,  it  is 
perhaps  preferable  to  proceed,  in  our  dairy  study,  from 
a  brief  general  consideration  or  review  of  the  various 
products  of  the  dairy  (milk,  butter,  cheese)  and  the  by- 
products (skimmed-milk,  whey,  cottage  cheese,  etc.)  to 
a  study  of  the  composition  of  milk,  its  testing,  and 
methods  of  handling  and  caring  for  it.  Then,  after  the 
study  of  milk,  butter,  and  other  dairy  products  as  food 
and  articles  of  profit,  there  will  naturally  arise  a  desire  to 
consider  the  condition  whereby  the  production  of  these 
articles  may  be  increased  and  improved.  The  animals 
themselves  will  then  receive  attention,  —  the  types  and 
breeds  of  the  dairy  cow  and  the  care  and  management  of 
the  dairy  herd. 

In  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Circular  60  outline 
is  given  a  study  of  the  dairy  cow,  type,  feeding,  care,  and 
management,  as  a  preliminary  to  the  study  of  milk  and 
its  products.  This  is  a  common  arrangement  of  material, 
and,  if  the  amount  of  knowledge  which  the  average 


DAIRY    WORK   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL  1 89 

student  has  of  the  dairy  cow  warrants  it,  may  prove  a 
good  one.  But  if  we  utilize  the  economic  approach  to 
the  fullest  degree,  we  will  begin  with  the  dairy  products 
and  proceed  from  a  study  of  the  products  to  the  study  of 
the  animal  producing  them,  —  studying  the  dairy  type 
and  breeds,  their  care  and  management,  after  our  study 
of  milk  and  its  products.  By  doing  this  we  shall  also 
acquire  a  better  apperceptive  basis  for  the  later  work. 

As  to  the  methods  to  be  employed  in  teaching  dairying, 
—  they  will  consist,  as  in  other  agricultural  courses,  of 
lectures,  reading  assignments,  recitations,  laboratory 
work,  field  trips,  and  outdoor  practicums.  In  deter- 
mining how  much  time  shall  be  given  to  each,  many 
factors  must  be  taken  into  account.  An  arrangement 
which  has  been  found  satisfactory  for  a  semester  course 
is  three  recitations  per  week  and  two  double  laboratory 
periods.  Three  double  laboratory  periods  per  week  and 
two  recitations  is  also  a  popular  arrangement  of  time. 

We  may  or  may  not  use  a  textbook.  In  general, 
however,  it  will  probably  be  advisable  for  students  to 
purchase  at  least  one  of  the  more  satisfactory  texts 
adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  high  school  students. 
The  number  of  lectures  which  it  is  necessary  for  the 
instructor  to  prepare  will  thus  be  lessened,  and  certain 
fundamental  facts  will  always  be  available  for  quick 
reference.  Any  textbook  will,  however,  need  to  be 
supplemented  by  occasional  lectures  and  by  reading 


IQO   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

assignments  in  dairy  reference  books  and  bulletins. 
Among  the  textbooks  on  dairy  work  most  used  in  high 
schools  may  be  mentioned  Wing's  "Milk  and  its  Prod- 
ucts," Van  Norman's  "First  Lessons  in  Dairying," 
Farrington  and  Woll,  "Testing  Milk  and  its  Products," 
and  Michels,  "Farm  Dairying." 

We  are  particularly  fortunate  in  secondary  work  in 
dairying  in  having  easily  available  a  vast  wealth  of  ex- 
tremely valuable  station  and  Department  of  Agriculture 
material  on  dairy  topics,  much  of  which  is  popularly 
written.  This  should  be  freely  utilized  and  referred  to ; 
and  in  many  instances  the  instructor  should  endeavor  to 
obtain  duplicate  copies  of  bulletins  for  the  use  of  students. 
Lectures  in  addition  to  text  and  bulletin  assignments 
will  be  on  subjects  that  are  not  fully  elucidated  in  the 
text,  or  which  may  more  profitably  be  presented  to 
students  in  lecture  form  than  in  the  bulletins  or  other 
reference  books. 

The  recitation  in  dairying  will,  as  in  other  classes, 
sometimes  consist  of  an  oral  quiz  on  assignments  or 
lectures,  or  it  may  review  the  results  of  laboratory  work, 
or  it  may  consist  occasionally  of  reports  by  different 
students  on  special  reading  assignments  covering  matter 
which  the  instructor  wishes  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  class,  but  which  he  does  not  wish  to  give  in  lecture 
form  and  which  he  does  not  consider  important  enough  to 
be  read  by  every  member  of  the  class.  The  recitations 


DAIRY    WORK   IN   THE   HIGH    SCHOOL  IQI 

should  fix  in  mind  facts  learned,  should  serve  as  a  means 
by  which  the  instructor  tests  the  knowledge  of  students, 
and  should  emphasize  important  facts.  They  should  be 
varied,  quick  moving,  and  interesting. 

The  laboratory  and  other  practicum  work  should  be 
outlined  as  carefully  as  the  recitation  and  lecture  work. 
If  a  laboratory  manual  is  not  used,1  the  directions  for  the 
work  should  be  carefully  worked  out  by  the  teacher  for 
each  experiment  or  exercise,  and  the  materials  should  be 
in  readiness  at  the  proper  time.  If  possible,  typed 
directions  should  be  duplicated  for  each  student.  If 
there  is  a  commercial  department  in  the  school,  the 
instructor  in  that  department  may  be  glad  to  have  stu- 
dents do  such  work  for  the  agricultural  department  as 
practice  work.  Even  if  a  laboratory  manual  is  used, 
the  good  teacher  will  probably  not  follow  it  exactly, 
but  will  select,  supplement,  and  rearrange  the  material 
as  suits  his  work  best.  And,  too,  the  indoor  dairy  lab- 
oratory work  must  be  supplemented  by  field  trips, 

1  There  is  as  yet  no  really  satisfactory  laboratory  guide  for  dairy  work 
in  the  high  school.  Charles  W.  Melick's  "Dairy  Laboratory  Guide" 
(N.  Y.,  Van  Nostrand,  1907)  will,  however,  be  found  useful,  even  if  it  is 
not  adopted  for  class  use.  It  was  prepared  for  short  courses  where  the 
classes  are  largely  made  up  of  farm  boys  whose  education  ranges  from  the 
eighth  grade  through  the  high  school ;  and  it  aims,  therefore,  to  begin  with 
very  elementary  exercises  and  to  include  only  the  most  practical.  H.  E. 
Ross's  "Dairy  Laboratory  Guide"  (N.  Y.,  Orange  Judd,  1912)  will  also 
be  found  very  useful.  "Experimental  Dairy  Bacteriology"  by  Russell 
and  Hastings  (Bost.,  Ginn  &  Co.,  1909)  will  be  suggestive  for  the  instruc- 
tor, but  it  is  not  recommended  for  class  use. 


IQ2       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

judging  of  dairy  cattle,  outdoor  practicums,  and  so  on. 
Needless  to  say,  the  laboratory  work  should  be  given  in 
proper  sequence,  articulating  with  the  textbook,  lecture 
and  recitation  work,  and  emphasizing  and  elucidating 
them.  Only  in  this  way  can  the  greatest  good  be  derived 
from  it. 

Among  the  exercises  should  be  included  the  testing  of 
milk,  cream,  butter,  and  other  dairy  products ;  judging 
of  dairy  cows,  herds,  and  products ;  operating  the  cream 
separator ;  making  of  butter,  cottage  cheese,  etc. ; 
balancing  rations  for  dairy  cows;  and  many  others. 

In  one  school,  several  days  each  winter  are  spent  in 
testing  cattle  for  tuberculosis.  Students  go  with  a  com- 
petent instructor  to  a  neighboring  herd.  There  they  are 
divided  into  squads  and,  with  a  leader  for  each  squad 
who  has  had  some  experience  before,  temperatures  are 
taken  for  several  hours.  Records  are  carefully  kept  and 
the  injections  made  in  time  to  return  home  before  bed- 
time. The  owner  of  the  herd  has  learned  to  take  the 
morning  temperature,  or  a  few  students  are  sent  to  take 
them.  The  class  and  instructor  chart  the  curves  for 
each  animal  and  make  careful  study  of  the  results.  In 
this  work  class  practice  is  seen  to  be  of  direct  benefit 
to  the  individual  farmer. 

Excellent  suggestions  as  to  the  laboratory  and  prac- 
ticum  work  will  be  found  in  the  New  York  State  Educa- 
tion Department  Syllabus  in  Agriculture  for  Secondary 


DAIRY   WORK   IN   THE    HIGH    SCHOOL  193 

Schools,  1910,  where  thirty-six  exercises  are  fully  de- 
scribed, a  list  of  needed  materials  and  directions  for 
work  being  given  in  each  case.  Among  other  publica- 
tions suggestive  in  outlining  the  laboratory  and  prac- 
ticum  work,  the  following  may  well  be  noted :  Purdue 
University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Circular  29, 
"  Live-stock  Judging  for  Beginners  "  ;  Purdue  University 
School  Bulletin,  "  Practical  Studies  in  Agriculture  for  the 
Common  Schools  " ;  West  Virginia  University  College  of 
Agriculture,  "  School  Agriculture,"  v.  2,  No.  4,  "  Cattle 
and  their  Products";  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
Circular  100,  "  Secondary  Course  in  Animal  Produc- 
tion"; Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bulletin  166, 
"A  Course  in  Cheese  Making  for  Movable  Schools  of 
Agriculture";  Vermont  Department  of  Education, 
"Manual  of  Agriculture  "  (1911);  and  Oklahoma  Agri- 
cultural and  Mechanical  College,  Agricultural  Club 
Series,  Nos.  8  and  9,  on  "Butter  Making"  and  "Milk 
Testing."  In  all  of  these  good  exercises  will  be  found 
described  which  may  be  used  in  the  dairy  course. 

Field  trips  should  include  excursions,  at  appropriate 
times,  to  well-conducted  dairies  in  the  vicinity,  for  the 
purpose  of  noting  and  judging  the  various  breeds  of 
dairy  cattle,  or  to  observe  details  of  the  care  and  manage- 
ment of  the  dairy  herd.  There  may  also  be  some  scoring 
of  dairy  barns  and  dairy  herds  producing  milk  for  city 
use,  the  best  being  scored  first  to  establish  high  standards 
o 


1 94        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

in  the  students'  minds.  If  possible,  trips  to  creameries, 
to  local  fairs  where  dairy  stock  is  exhibited,  to  implement 
or  hardware  houses  to  see  different  types  of  dairy  utensils, 
etc.,  should  be  included.  Wherever  possible,  the  illustra- 
tive material  to  be  found  in  the  community  should  be 
sought  out  and  utilized  for  the  benefit  of  the  class. 

In  connection  with  the  dairy  course,  individual  home 
project  work  for  the  student  may  be  encouraged,  —  such 
as  caring  for  at  least  one  cow  in  a  herd,  with  a  view  to 
securing  from  her  the  highest  production  of  which  she  is 
capable ;  weighing  and  recording  the  milk  yields  of  the 
herd  at  each  milking;  making  frequent  Babcock  tests 
of  the  butter-fat  content  of  milk;  and  many  others. 
Such  work  is  not  only  of  advantage  to  the  students 
themselves,  but  it  helps  bring  the  teacher  in  touch  with 
their  home  life  and  enlists  the  interest  of  parents  in  the 
work.  Where  there  is  no  opportunity  for  students  to 
undertake  individual  project  work  in  dairying  at  home, 
it  may  often  be  arranged  for  at  other  homes  of  the 
community  or  on  the  school  farm.  Due  credit  should 
be  given  for  the  work  in  all  cases.  Where  the  individual 
project  work  is  not  done  at  home  and  the  amount  of  time 
required  for  it  exceeds  a  certain  limit  decided  upon, 
workers  should  be  adequately  remunerated  by  the 
school  or  person  for  whom  the  work  is  done. 

The  equipment  for  dairy  work  may  vary  widely  in 
schools  giving  excellent  courses.  It  will,  however, 


DAIRY    WORK   IN    THE   HIGH    SCHOOL  1 95 

prove  more  expensive  than  the  equipment  for  most  of 
the  other  agricultural  courses  if  the  best  work  is  to  be 
done.  If  the  school  has  a  farm  with  suitable  buildings, 
there  should  be  some  dairy  stock  and  a  good  dairy 
room  or  house  properly  equipped  for  the  care  and  testing 
of  milk,  butter  making,  etc.  If  it  is  not  possible  for  the 
school  to  own  or  "rent"  or  borrow  dairy  stock,  a  definite 
amount  of  milk  may  be  purchased  daily  while  the  dairy 
course  is  being  given.  With  a  properly  equipped  dairy 
room  excellent  work  is  then  possible,  though  all  obser- 
vation and  study  of  dairy  stock  must  necessarily  be 
carried  on  through  field  trips,  home  project  work,  etc. 
In  any  event,  whether  or  not  the  school  owns  dairy  stock, 
the  illustrative  materials  to  be  found  in  the  community 
in  the  dairy  herds,  creameries,  etc.,  should  be  freely 
utilized  wherever  possible  and  advantageous. 

The  dairy  room  or  laboratory  should  be  well  equipped 
for  carrying  on  the  work.  Make-shifts  are  used  in  some 
schools,  but  it  does  not  pay.  Any  reasonable  expendi- 
ture to  secure  a  well-equipped  dairy  laboratory  will 
prove  worth  while  in  every  way.  The  equipment  should 
include  all  needed  apparatus  and  materials  for  the  test- 
ing of  dairy  products  and  for  the  making  and  care  of 
butter.  White  duck  suits  to  be  worn  in  the  dairy  room 
should  be  purchased  by  individual  students,  and  there- 
fore need  not  be  considered  here. 

Suggestions  as  to  apparatus  and  supplies  needed  for 


196        MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

dairy  work  in  the  high  school  may  be  found  in  various 
publications,  among  which  are  the  following :  University 
of  California  Circular  67,  pp.  48-50;  Michigan  Agri- 
cultural College,  Department  of  Agriculture  Education 
Bulletin  i,  p.  37  (list  of  apparatus  needed  for  the 
Babcock  test) ;  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Circular 
loo,  p.  56;  Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College,  Agricultural  Club  Series,  No.  9,  pp.  3-5,  13 
(outfit  for  Babcock  testing  and  for  obtaining  dairy 
herd  records).  In  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bulletin 
1 66,  "A  Course  in  Cheese  Making  for  Movable  Schools 
of  Agriculture,"  is  given  a  list  of  apparatus  and  materials 
needed  for  that  work.  Much  of  this  would  not  be  taken 
up  in  the  average  high  school  dairy  course,  but  a  part 
of  it  might  well  be  in  many  localities. 

In  making  out  a  list  of  supplies  needed  for  the  dairy 
course  in  any  particular  school,  the  probable  number 
of  students  taking  the  work  would  have  to  be  considered, 
the  laboratory  exercises  which  it  is  planned  to  give,  and 
many  other  questions.  So  that  any  published  list  is 
merely  suggestive  and  to  be  used  as  a  help. 

The  dairy  division  of  the  agricultural  library  should 
include  many  bulletins  and  a  few  good  books.  Among 
the  latter  any  of  the  following  will  be  found  useful. 

BELCHER,  S.  D.    Clean  Milk.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.    1903. 
CONN,  H.  W.    Bacteria  in  Milk  and  its  Products.    Phil.    P. 
Blakiston's  Sons.     1903. 


DAIRY   WORK   IN   THE   HIGH    SCHOOL  197 

CONN,   H.   W.    Practical  Dairy  Bacteriology.    N.   Y.    Orange 

Judd.     1907. 
CRAIG,  J.    A.     Judging   Livestock.     Ames,  la.    J.    A.    Craig. 

1901. 
FARRINGTON,  E.  H.,  and  WOLL,  F.  W.    Testing  Milk  and  its 

Products.    Madison,  Wis.    Mendota  Pub.  Co.     1911. 
CURLER,  H.  B.    The  Farm  Dairy.    Chic.    Breeders'  Gazette. 

1909. 
HENRY,   W.   A.    Feeds  and  Feeding.    Madison,   Wis.    W.   A. 

Henry.     1910. 
LANE,  C.  B.    The  Business  of  Dairying.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd. 

1909. 
McKAY,  G.  L.,   and  LARSEN,   C.    Principles  and  Practice  of 

Buttermaking.    N.  Y.    John  Wiley  &  Sons.     1908. 
MICHELS,  H.    Dairy  Farming.    Milwaukee,  Wis.    H.  Michels. 

1911. 
PLUMB,    C.    S.    Types   and   Breeds   of   Farm   Animals.    Bost. 

Ginn  &  Co.     1906. 
Ross,  H.  E.    A  Dairy  Laboratory  Guide.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd. 

1912. 

RUSSELL,  H.  L.,  and  HASTINGS,  E.  G.    Experimental  Dairy  Bac- 
teriology.   Bost.     Ginn  &  Co.     1909. 
SNYDER,  H.    Dairy  Chemistry.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1906. 
VAN  NORMAN,  H.  E.    First  Lessons  in  Dairying.    N.  Y.    Orange 

Judd.     1908. 
VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.    Modern  Methods  of  Testing  Milk  and  Milk 

Products.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.     1912. 
WING,  H.  H.    Milk  and  its  Products.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1907. 

In  making  out  the  bulletin  list,  at  least  those  mentioned 
under  dairying  in  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Circular 
94,  "Free  Publications  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
Classified  for  the  Use  of  Teachers,"  should  be  secured. 


198       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

Selections  should  also  be  made  from  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  Circular  106,  "Publications  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,"  and  from  the  publications  of  the 
various  stations. 

If  desired,  a  wealth  of  useful  community  work  may  be 
undertaken  in  connection  with  the  dairy  course.  Occa- 
sional authoritative  tests  of  milk  and  cream  may  be  made 
for  farmers.  Interest  in  cooperative  breeding  and  im- 
provement of  dairy  stock  may  be  aroused.  Cow-testing 
associations  may  be  formed.  Cooperative  ownership 
of  dairy  bulls  may  be  encouraged.  Evening  lectures 
on  dairying  may  be  given,  at  least  some  of  which  should, 
if  possible,  be  illustrated  by  demonstration  exercises, 
lantern  slides,  etc.  For  example,  the  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations  lecture  on  the  "Care  of  Milk,"  illustrated 
by  forty-four  excellent  slides,  may  be  given ;  or  a  lecture 
on  the  dairy  type  and  breeds,  illustrated  with  cuts  from 
bulletins  and  books.  Dairy  short  courses  and  institutes 
may  be  carried  on.  Exhibits  of  dairy  products  may  be 
arranged  for. 

The  live  teacher  will  find  many  ways  of  doing  valuable 
work  for  the  community  along  dairy  lines,  gaining  at 
the  same  time  sympathy  and  cooperation  for  his  school 
work  and  respect  for  his  instruction. 


DAIRY   WORK   IN   THE   HIGH    SCHOOL 


I99 


OUTLINES  OF  HIGH  SCHOOL  DAIRY  COURSES 


DAIRYING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

(Michigan    Agricultural    College,    Department    of    Agricultural 
Education  Bui.  No.  7,  1911,  p.  40.) 

The  work  in  dairying  may  well  be  confined  to  two  general  heads, 
viz.: — 


i.  Babcock 
test. 


Composi- 
tion. 

Production. 


2.  Milk. 


Care. 


Feeding. 
Secretion. 

Cleanliness  in  handling. 
Relation  of  bacteria  to  milk. 

Shallow  pan  setting. 
Creaming     Deep   setting  or   cooling 
of  system, 

milk.         Dilution  methods. 

Centrifugal  separation. 


Ripening 
and 
churn- 
ing 
cream. 


Process  of  ripening  and 
necessary  conditions. 

Conditions  affecting  time 
and  efficiency  of  churn- 
ing. 

Making  and  salting  but- 
ter. 


200       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

B 
DAIRYING  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

(University  of  California   Cir.  47,   "Agriculture    in    the    High 
Schools,"  pp.  14-15.     1909.) 

Dairying. 

A.  Milk. 

1.  Composition. 

2.  Study  of  each  constituent  in  composition;    fat,  casein, 

albumin,  sugar,  ash. 

B.  Babcock  test  for  fat  in  milk,  cream,  butter,  and  cheese. 
Purchase  small  tester  if  possible. 

Specific  gravity  test  with  lactometer. 

C.  Production  and  care  of  milk. 

1.  Cleanliness  of  stable,  cows,  vessels,  and  attendants. 

2.  Milking,  straining,  aerating,  cooling. 

3.  Bacteria  as  cause  of  souring  and  other  changes  and 

flavors. 

4.  Odors  and  flavors  not  caused  by  bacteria. 

5.  Preventing  and  controlling  fermentations. 

6.  Diseases  that  may  be  carried  by  milk. 

D.  Milk  and  cream  for  home  use,  quality  of,  methods  of  mar- 

keting. 

E.  Separation  of  cream  from  milk. 

1.  Gravity  in  pans. 

2.  Centrifugal  separator. 

3.  The  farm  separator  and  its  use. 

F.  Butter  making. 

1.  In  the  home. 

2.  In  the  near-by  creamery. 

3.  From  cream  shipped  to  city. 

4.  Ripening  cream  —  flavors. 

5.  Kinds  of  churns. 

6.  Coloring,  washing,  salting,  working,  packing,  marketing. 

G.  Cheese  making. 

1.  California  and  Eastern  methods. 

2.  Other  and  fancy  varieties. 


DAIRY   WORK   IN   THE   HIGH    SCHOOL 


201 


H.  Condensed  milk. 
7.    Field  work. 

1.  Visit  creameries  or  cheese  factories  in  neighborhood. 

2.  Have  small  Babcock  test  in  school,  and  pupils  bring 

samples  of  milk  from  home. 

3.  Visit  dairies  to  study  cleanliness. 


i.  The  dairy  cow. 


ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  DAIRYING 

(Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Cir.  60,  pp.  18-19.     1904.) 
|  Type. 
\  Feeding,  care,  and  management. 

~  i  How  determined. 

Composition.  \ 

Relation  to  price. 


Handling. 


2.  Milk. 


Uses. 


1 

Stables. 

Cleanliness. 

Cows. 
Attendants. 

Relation  to  sour- 

Vessels. 

ing  or  tainting 

Straining. 

of  milk. 

Aerating. 

Cooling. 

For       con- 

sumption 

Putting  up  in  cans  or  bottles. 

as     milk 

Marketing. 

or  cream. 

For  condensing.     (Putting  in  cans  and  hauling.) 

For  cheese  making. 

By    setting     in 

Creaming. 

pans. 
By  use  of  sep- 

arator. 

For  butter 

nu  «•«.         f  Temperature. 

Lnurmng.        {  

making. 

[  Kinds  of  churns. 

Salting. 

Coloring. 

Working. 

Packing. 

Marketing. 

202   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 


OUTLINE  FOR  DAIRY  WORK  IN  THE  EIGHTH  GRADE 
(Also  used  in  some  high  schools.) 

(E.  A.  Cockefair,  "Correlated  Outline  of  Agriculture,  Geography, 
Physiology."  pp.  15-16.) 

1.  Anatomy  of  the  udder. 

a.  Structure. 

b.  Blood  supply. 

2.  Physiology  of  milk  secretion. 

3.  Care  of  the  cow. 

4.  Composition  of  milk. 

a.  Variability  and  causes. 

b.  Comparison  with  other  animals. 

5.  Tests  for  butter  fat. 

Materials     needed :      milk 

a.  Composition  of  butter  fat. 

0.       ,    .  ,    .  acid,    Babcock    machine 

b.  Size  of  globules. 

and    equipment. 

6.  Separation. 

a.  Setting  systems.  f  ^  _       . 

|  Materials  needed:  thermom- 
o.  Dilution  methods. 

eters. 

c.  The  centrifugal  method. 


f  Materials    needed :    bottles 


7.  Pasteurization  and  sterilization.  , 

I     and  cotton. 

8.  Churning. 

a.  Principles  involved. 

b.  Use  of  butter  color. 

c.  Grain  in  butter. 

9.  Cheese  making. 

10.  Diseases  of  dairy  cattle. 

11.  Dairy  countries. 
Books  needed. 

Aikman,  "Milk,  its  Nature  and  Composition." 
Farrington  and  Woll,  "Testing  Milk  and  its  Products." 


DAIRY   WORK   IN   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL  203 

Wing,  "Milk  and  its  Products." 
Missouri  Dairy  Report,  1908. 

Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  29,  42,  55,  63,  74,  131,  151,  166,  206, 
and  241. 

E 

DAIRYING 

(A  condensed  outline  taken  from  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
Cir.  100,  "A  Secondary  Course  in  Animal  Production," 
pp.  46-55.  1911.  Work  to  form  a  part  of  a  general  year's 
course  in  animal  husbandry.) 

1.  Milk  and  its  products.    Secretion. 

2.  Composition  of  milk. 

3.  Testing  milk. 

4.  Testing  milk  and  cream. 

5.  Milking. 

6.  Bacteria  in  relation  to  dairying. 

7.  The  production  of  clean  and  sanitary  milk. 

8.  Creaming. 

9.  Operating  the  farm  separator. 

10.  How  to  secure  good  cream  for  sale  or  for  butter  making. 

11.  Butter  making. 

12.  Churning  and  working  butter. 

13.  General  suggestions  in  making  and  marketing  butter. 

14.  Visiting  dairies  and  creameries. 

15.  Grading  and  judging  butter. 

1 6.  Cheese  making  on  the  farm. 

17.  The  making  of  farm  dairy  cheese. 

1 8.  Marketing  milk  and  cream. 

19.  Visit  to  cheese  factory. 

Some  of  the  lessons  outlined  under  other  heads  in  this  circular 
also  treat  of  dairying.     For  example,  under  cattle  we  find :  — 


204       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

Cattle,  zoological  classification. 

Development  of  modern  types  and  breeds. 

Comparison  of  types  of  cattle  (the  beef  and  the  dairy  cow) . 

Beef  breeds. 

Dairy  breeds  —  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Holstein-Friesian,  Ayrshire. 

Judging  dairy  cows. 

Diseases  of  dairy  cattle.     (Milk  fever,  tuberculosis,  impaction 

of  the  rumen.) 

Under  feeding  and  care  of  farm  animals  we  find,  under  dairy 
cattle,  the  following  lessons  outlined :  — 
Feeding  for  milk  production.     Equipment. 
Nutrient  requirements  for  milk. 
Feeding  the  fresh  cow  in  winter. 
Results  of  experiment  station  tests. 
Summer  feeding  for  milk  and  the  care  of  other  dairy  stock. 

(The  calf,  bull,  heifer.) 
Rearing  calves  on  skim  milk.    Relative  economy  of  skim  and 

whole  milk  in  raising  calves. 

PRACTICUM 

Draw  a  plan  of  a  high  school  dairy  laboratory  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  accommodate  a  class  of  fifteen  students. 
List  the  equipment  desirable  for  this  laboratory,  with 
itemized  cost. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  POULTRY  COURSE 

THE  study  of  poultry  culture  furnishes  an  animal 
husbandry  course  which  is  adapted  to  the  needs  and  in- 
terests of  many  communities  and  which,  in  addition, 
offers  special  opportunities  and  advantages  for  secondary 
and  elementary  schools. 

We  are  apt  greatly  to  underestimate  the  poultry 
industry  because  it  is  so  scattered  and  the  proceeds 
are  distributed  among  so  many  people.  Yet  in  the  ag- 
gregate the  products  of  the  American  hen  total  more  than 
$509,000,000  annually.  This  sum,  according  to  the  most 
recent  statistics  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
is  greater  than  the  combined  value  of  oats  and  barley 
for  1909.  It  is  nearly  five  times  the  value  of  the 
tobacco  crop  for  the  same  year.  This  value  is  con- 
stantly increasing,  and  the  importance  of  the  poultry 
industry  advancing  proportionately.  Yet  even  now 
most  of  our  city  markets  are  fully  supplied  with  choice 
quality  eggs  only  a  comparatively  small  part  of  the 
year,  though  the  demand  for  them  is  increasing  and  the 
prices  received  are  high. 

205 


206       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  poultry  industry  offers 
opportunities  for  intelligent,  well-informed  persons 
practically  all  over  the  country.  There  is  no  reason 
why  the  industry  should  not  be  greatly  expanded  and, 
under  proper  management,  meet  the  demands  of  both 
home  and  foreign  markets.  However,  though  there 
are  many  opportunities  in  the  poultry  business,  and 
though  fowls  often  thrive  even  when  neglected,  we  have 
begun  to  realize  that  any  real  satisfaction  in  the  rearing 
of  poultry  must  come  as  a  result  of  careful  study  and 
attention.  By  studying  the  questions  of  breeding, 
feeding,  diseases,  general  management,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  business  principles,  the  usefulness  of  all  kinds 
of  fowls  and  the  profits  from  them  can  be  greatly  in- 
creased. 

Poultry  work  may,  therefore,  well  be  made  one  of  the 
agricultural  courses  of  the  high  school  because  of  the 
importance  of  the  poultry  industry  as  an  agricultural 
occupation  and  the  importance  of  poultry  products  as 
food  for  man.  There  are,  however,  special  reasons, 
aside  from  the  importance  of  the  poultry  industry  and 
of  poultry  products  and  aside  from  the  general  reasons 
for  teaching  agricultural  subjects,  which  make  poultry 
culture  particularly  adapted  for  instructional  purposes 
in  secondary  schools  in  different  localities  and  with 
different  conditions. 

The  work  is  suited  to  practically  all  kinds  of  high 


THE    HIGH   SCHOOL  POULTRY   COURSE  207 

schools,  —  except,  perhaps,  those  of  the  larger  cities. 
Poultry  raising  is  carried  on  in  both  town  and  country. 
Poultry  products  are  almost  equally  used  in  town 
and  country  homes.  Probably  no  other  branch  of 
agriculture  interests  a  greater  number  of  people  than 
poultry  keeping.  It  is  not  limited  by  soil  or  climatic 
conditions ;  it  does  not  require  an  expensive  equipment ; 
and  it  is  reasonably  profitable.  The  poultryman  is 
found  in  every  state  and  in  every  county  of  the  Union. 
The  farm  without  some  poultry  is  almost  an  anomaly ; 
and  yet  the  farmer  does  not  monopolize  the  business. 
The  villager  with  his  back  lot,  the  woman  in  search  of  a 
livelihood,  and  many  others  besides  the  farmer  engage 
in  poultry  raising.1  There  is  probably  no  other  agri- 
cultural subject  in  which  there  is  as  nearly  an  equal 
"ready-made"  interest  in  both  urban  and  rural  dis- 
tricts as  in  poultry  raising.  The  majority  of  high  school 
pupils  have  a  fairly  good  apperceptive  basis  for  the 
work,  and  it  may  therefore  be  introduced  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances. 

Poultry  work  and  poultry  raising  instruction  is  equally 
suited  to  both  boys  and  girls.  Each  will  be  equally 
interested  in  and  equally  successful  in  the  work.  Poul- 
try work  can  be  more  easily  and  thoroughly  done  by  stu- 

1  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on  the  Production  and  Marketing  of 
Eggs  and  Poultry.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Office 
of  Experiment  Stations,  Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  10,  p.  3. 


208         MATERIALS  AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

dents  of  high  school  age  than  work  with  almost  any 
other  kind  of  live  stock.  It  utilizes  the  economic  ap- 
proach in  its  presentation  of  material  and  connects  the 
school  work  with  the  home  life  of  a  large  number  of  the 
pupils,  showing  them  the  practical  side  of  education 
very  forcefully.  It,  in  common  with  many  other  agri- 
cultural subjects,  trains  pupils  to  investigate  for  them- 
selves; it  teaches  them  to  apply  the  knowledge  which 
they  may  acquire ;  and  it  sustains  their  interest. 

In  many  school  districts  the  question  of  cost  of  equip- 
ment would  forever  prevent  the  raising  and  study  of 
any  kind  of  farm  stock  other  than  poultry  on  the  school 
grounds.  To  be  sure,  other  animal  husbandry  subjects 
may  even  in  that  case  be  studied  in  the  school  and  the 
schoolroom  work  supplemented  by  visits  to  neighboring 
farms  for  the  inspection  and  judging  of  the  kind  of  stock 
studied.  But  only  in  the  case  of  poultry  can  a  large 
number  of  schools  afford  the  purchase  of  stock  and 
proper  provision  for  its  care. 

Having  decided  upon  the  advantages  of  a  course  in 
poultry  work  for  the  high  school,  —  where  shall  we  put 
it  in  our  curriculum  ?  If  there  is  little  interest  in  dairy- 
ing in  the  community,  poultry  work  might  take  the 
place  of  the  dairy  course,  in  the  second  year  of  the  high 
school,  either  the  first  or  second  semester.  Or,  better 
still,  it  might  run  throughout  the  second  year,  two  days 
per  week,  alternating  with  the  class  in  general  live  stock 


THE   HIGH    SCHOOL   POULTRY   COURSE  2 09 

or  animal  husbandry.  If  there  is  great  interest  in  all  live 
stock  topics  in  the  community  and  but  little  in  horti- 
culture, the  poultry  work  or  dairy  work  might  be  given 
half  of  the  third  year,  general  live  stock  and  either  poultry 
or  dairy  work  being  given  the  second  year. 

The  materials  chosen  for  presentation  in  the  course 
should  include  some  study  of  types  and  breeds,  poultry 
judging,  feeding,  and  the  general  care  and  management 
of  farm  poultry.  The  outline  given  in  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations  Circular  100  for  poultry  study  as  a  part  of 
the  general  live  stock  course  may  easily  be  adapted  to 
the  purpose  of  a  special  course  and  will  be  found  help- 
ful in  many  ways.  However,  other  topics  might  well 
be  added,  and  many  more  practicums.  In  a  special 
poultry  course,  too,  much  more  time  would  be  given  to 
the  separate  topics  than  is  indicated  in  this  outline. 

The  Wisconsin  high  school  outline,  which  is  also  a 
part  of  that  for  the  general  live  stock  course,  divides 
the  poultry  work  into  four  divisions :  (i)  poultry 
as  an  economic  factor  in  farm  and  city  life;  (2)  the 
care  and  management  of  poultry;  (3)  feeding  poultry 
and  marketing  poultry  products ;  (4)  judging  poultry. 

An  excellent  outline  for  poultry  study,  taking  up  in 
order  statistics  of  poultry  keeping,  study  of  breeds, 
poultry  houses,  feeds  and  feeding,  marketing  poultry 
products,  hatching  and  rearing  chickens,  and  diseases  and 
parasites,  is  given  in  Bulletin  38  of  the  Minnesota 


210        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

Department  of  Public  Instruction,  ''Outlines  for  Second- 
ary Courses  in  Agriculture." 

Still  another  outline  for  poultry  work  in  the  high 
school l  reads  as  follows :  — 

Poultry. 

A .  Study  of  breeds. 

1.  Egg  breeds. 

a.  Mediterranean  —  Leghorn,  Minorca,  Spanish. 

b.  Hamburg  —  Houdan. 

2.  Meat  breeds. 

Asiatics  —  Brahmas,  Cochins,  Langshans. 

3.  General  purpose  breeds. 

Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte,  Java,  Dorking. 
Rhode  Island  Red,  Orpington. 

4.  Fancy  breeds. 
Polish,  Game,  Bantam. 

B.  Study  of  incubators,  incubation,  and  brooding. 

C.  Care  and  management,  diseases  and  their  control. 

D.  Judging  and  scoring  all  breeds,  fowls  from  the  home  yard. 

The  New  York  State  Education  Department  outline 
for  a  half  year's  poultry  work  and  the  Maine  high  school 
outline  are  given  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

Though  it  may  be  advisable  to  give  the  instruction 
in  poultry  work  largely  by  means  of  lectures  and  reading 
assignments,  supplemented  by  practical  work,  yet  stu- 
dents should  be  asked  to  purchase  at  least  one  of  the 
several  excellent  books  on  poultry  culture.  None  of 

1  Anderson,  Leroy,  "  Agriculture  in  the  High  Schools,"  p.  15  (Univer- 
sity of  California  Circular  47). 


THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   POULTRY   COURSE  211 

these  is  ideal  for  a  high  school  poultry  course,  but  any 
one  of  several  can  be  very  helpfully  used  in  connection 
with  the  work.  Robinson's  "  Principles  and  Practice 
of  Poultry  Culture  "  is  one  of  the  latest  of  poultry  books 
and  is  already  used  in  a  number  of  high  schools.  It  has 
an  excellent  arrangement  of  material,  but  gives  no  prac- 
ticums.  This,  however,  is  a  fault  which  it  has  in 
common  with  practically  all  poultry  texts.  Watson's 
"Farm  Poultry,"  Robinson's  "Poultry  Craft,"  Brigham's 
"Progressive  Poultry  Culture,"  and  other  books  are  also 
used  in  high  schools  as  texts.  The  teacher  expecting 
to  give  a  poultry  course  should  examine  these  and  other 
poultry  books  carefully,  choosing  the  one  best  suited  to 
the  needs  of  his  pupils  and  to  conditions  in  the  locality 
as  well  as  to  the  outline  prepared  for  the  course. 

As  to  laboratory  manuals,  —  there  is  but  one  for 
poultry  work.  This  is  by  H.  R.  Lewis,  and  is  entitled 
"Poultry  Laboratory  Guide."  It  is  not  ideal,  and  in 
fact  it  would  probably  not  be  desirable  to  put  in  the 
hands  of  high  school  pupils.  It  will,  however,  be  found 
very  helpful  in  planning  the  practicums  for  the  work. 
The  teacher  should  secure  a  copy  for  himself  or  for  the 
school  library  and  select  from  the  exercises  such  as  are 
suited  to  his  needs,  supplementing  them  by  others  and 
by  field  trips. 

Teaching  methods  in  the  poultry  course  will  not  differ 
from  those  employed  in  the  other  agricultural  courses 


212         MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

which  have  already  been  discussed.  The  lecture,  recita- 
tion, quiz,  laboratory  work,  field  trips,  and  outdoor  practi- 
cums  will  all  have  their  place.  In  general,  one- third  to 
one-half  of  the  class  time  should  be  given  to  practicum 
periods  or  field  trips.  In  addition  to  this,  individual  home 
or  school  practice  work  will  be  carried  on.  This,  however, 
is  carried  on  outside  of  the  regular  class  time  for  the  most 
part,  just  as  is  the  studying  of  reading  assignments. 

Poultry  work  has  an  advantage  over  other  live  stock 
courses  in  that  it  is  possible  to  do  much  practical  work 
indoors  as  well  as  outdoors.  Fowls  may  be  brought 
within  the  classroom  when  needed,  and  many  practical 
laboratory  exercises  may  be  planned  for  the  schoolroom 
as  well  as  outside.  Interesting  school  exhibits  of  poultry 
and  other  agricultural  products  studied  in  tjie  school 
may  profitably  and  easily  be  made  an  annual  feature 
of  the  school  year. 

With  a  comparatively  inexpensive  equipment,  work 
in  poultry  raising  can  be  carried  on  with  a  degree  of 
completeness  possible  in  the  case  of  practically  no  other 
stock-raising  industry.  With  a  few  fowls  and  an  inex- 
pensive house,  all  the  work  of  raising  and  marketing 
poultry  can  be  done  by  the  students.  Feeds  and  feed- 
ing, incubation,  the  marketing  of  poultry  products,  and 
all  the  other  features  of  poultry  management  become  in- 
tensely vital  and  interesting  with  the  stock  actually  on 
the  school  grounds  and  the  students  doing  the  work 


THE    HIGH    SCHOOL    POULTRY   COURSE  213 

of  feeding  and  caring  for  the  hens  themselves,  market- 
ing the  products,  figuring  the  cost  of  feeds  and  the  profits 
realized  from  the  sale  of  products.  Problems  of  the 
business  management  of  a  poultry  venture  can  be  worked 
out  with  considerable  detail.  Actual  facts  and  figures 
of  poultry  raising  may  be  worked  with  all  along  the  line, 
rather  than  general  facts  and  figures.  The  actual  rela- 
tions between  cost  of  equipment  and  of  carrying  on  the 
work  can  be  seen  and  demonstrated.  Valuable  experi- 
mental study  of  feeds  and  feeding  may  be  made. 

Judging  of  poultry  may  not  only  take  place  at  the 
school  or  on  field  trips  for  the  purpose,  but  visits  to  the 
county  fair  may  be  arranged,  where  permission  will 
probably  be  granted  the  students  to  judge  some  of  the 
poultry  and  compare  their  scores  with  the  work  of 
the  judges.  The  fair  officers  might  be  induced  to 
offer  prizes  for  poultry  raised  by  the  students,  and 
exhibits  of  their  products  might  be  made  at  farmers' 
institutes. 

Special  study  should  be  made  of  the  different  breeds 
of  poultry  found  near  the  school,  their  origin,  character- 
istics, etc.  As  a  practicum  it  might  be  well,  in  this  con- 
nection, to  make  a  census  of  a  given  locality  to  determine 
whether  the  majority  of  the  poultry  are  standard  bred 
or  scrub.  Different  methods  of  feeding  poultry  employed 
in  the  neighborhood  should  also  be  studied,  and  results 
compared.  Poultry  farms  should  be  visited  and  poultry 


214         MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

houses  inspected.  Sketches  should  be  made  by  students 
of  different  types  of  poultry  houses,  giving  dimensions 
and  stating  the  number  of  hens  to  be  kept  in  each  house, 
with  other  details. 

When  poultry  houses  are  needed  on  the  school  grounds 
for  the  housing  of  chickens,  they  may  well  be  planned 
and  constructed  by  pupils.  We  are  told  that  in  one 
school  where  no  poultry  buildings  were  needed  for  the 
school  an  eight-fowl  portable  poultry  house  was  planned 
and  constructed  as  practice  work,  later  being  sold.  The 
difference  between  the  cost  of  materials  and  the  purchase 
price  was  donated  to  the  school  to  be  used  for  athletic 
goods  for  the  boys. 

Catalogues  from  a  large  number  of  incubator  and 
brooder  firms  should  be  secured  when  studying  artificial 
incubation  and  the  incubators  and  brooders  studied 
and  compared.  Incubators  in  the  neighborhood  should 
be  examined.  The  school  itself  should  own  at  least 
one,  if  possible,  and  students  should  have  practice  in 
the  use  of  the  incubator  and  the  care  of  young  chicks 
in  the  brooder.  Eggs  should  be  tested  on  at  least  the 
seventh  and  the  fourteenth  day,  and  a  brief  description 
of  the  chick  in  the  shell  should  be  given.  A  broody  hen 
should  also  be  secured,  for  comparison  of  natural  with 
artificial  incubation,  and  placed  in  a  proper  nest. 
Students  may,  as  a  group  problem  while  studying 
incubation,  even  construct  an  incubator  and  brooder 


THE    HIGH   SCHOOL   POULTRY   COURSE  215 

along  lines  worked  out  by  them  and  approved  by  the 
class  and  instructor  as  satisfactory. 

When  studying  the  marketing  of  poultry,  the  meat 
markets  of  the  town  should  be  visited,  and  the  displays 
of  dressed  poultry  inspected.  The  methods  of  killing 
and  dressing  the  poultry  sold  for  meat  in  the  town 
should  also  be  learned,  if  possible. 

Poultry  work  is  rich  in  opportunities  for  special  indi- 
vidual practicums,  for  class  practicums  performed  by 
each  student,  and  for  group  problems  in  which  all 
or  a  number  of  students  take  some  assisting  part. 

A  valuable  opportunity  for  community  work  is  also 
afforded  in  connection  with  the  poultry  work  in  the  high 
school.  Poultry  clubs  might  well  be  formed,  evening 
lectures  on  poultry  topics  given,  home  experiments 
with  poultry  supervised,  short  courses  given,  and  so  on. 
Meetings  for  rural  school  teachers  could  also  be  held, 
and  poultry  work  for  rural  schools  discussed  and  its 
advantages  made  clear.  Successful  poultry  raisers  of 
the  community  might  well  be  invited  to  talk  to  the  pupils 
on  topics  on  which  they  are  especially  well  informed, 
or  concerning  work  in  which  they  have  been  particularly 
successful. 

The  equipment  for  poultry  work  may  vary  widely 
in  different  schools  and  yet  be  admirably  suited  to  the 
special  conditions  in  each  case.  The  main  requirements 
are,  of  course,  the  fowls,  the  house,  and  a  suitable  yard. 


2l6       MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

The  house  should  be  convenient,  well-lighted,  well-ven- 
tilated, dry,  warm  in  winter,  and  sanitary,  —  a  model 
in  its  way, —  and  yet  it  need  not  be  expensive.  If 
necessary,  one  of  the  small  portable  houses  now  on  the 
market  could  be  made  very  satisfactory  for  a  small 
flock,  or,  better,  a  house  may  be  constructed  by  students 
at  a  small  cost.  The  house  should  provide  space  of 
from  3  to  7  square  feet  for  each  adult  bird,  if  there 
is  a  good  run  attached  to  the  house ;  otherwise  a  larger 
house  space  must  be  provided.  The  roosting  space 
allowed  should  be  from  6  to  8  inches  for  the  smaller 
breeds,  8  to  10  inches  for  medium,  and  10  to  12  for 
the  larger. 

A  yard  space  of  from  60  to  150  square  feet  for  each 
adult  bird  is  recommended  by  many  poultry  authorities, 
but  if  necessary  this  space  may  be  somewhat  reduced. 
Fences  inclosing  the  yards  may  be  of  netting  or  pickets, 
and  should  be  about  7  feet  high.  At  the  bottom 
there  should  be  a  board,  if  young  chickens  are  given 
the  run  of  the  yard.  Some  provision  must  be  made 
for  shade  in  the  yard.  This  may  be  given  by  fruit  or 
other  trees,  by  sunflowers,  or  a  small  portion  of  the  yard 
may  be  covered. 

Where  the  school  has  a  manual  training  department, 
the  poultry  house  may,  if  desired,  be  built  by  the  students 
of  that  department.  Coops  will  be  needed  for  the  con- 
finement of  hens  with  broods  of  small  chickens.  These, 


THE    HIGH    SCHOOL   POULTRY   COURSE  217 

too,  may  easily  be  constructed  by  pupils,  as  well  as 
feeding  troughs,  drinking  fountains,  etc. 

The  small  school  might  well  start  with  as  few  as  a 
dozen  hens  and  one  cock  of  a  breed  which  is  a  favorite 
in  the  community  or  especially  adapted  to  the  locality. 
As  soon  as  it  is  possible,  it  would  be  well  to  add  a  dozen 
of  another  breed,  in  a  second  house.  Naturally,  the  first 
breed  selected  will  probably  be  an  egg  breed.  The 
next  may  well  be  a  general  purpose  breed,  or,  if  desired, 
a  meat  breed.  Thus  the  types,  requirements,  and  per- 
formances of  different  breeds  may  be  studied  and  com- 
pared in  fact  and  not  merely  learned  from  textbooks. 
If  absolutely  impossible  to  secure  pure-bred  stock,  com- 
mon mixed  fowls  may  be  used  to  start  with,  but  this 
is  not  advised.  It  will  almost  always  be  possible  to 
secure  donations  of  eggs  from  good  poultry  raisers  of 
the  community,  and  frequently  fowls  themselves  are 
gladly  given.  It  may  also  be  possible  to  secure  for  the 
school  at  small  cost  settings  of  eggs  of  desired  pure-bred 
stock  from  the  state  agricultural  experiment  station  and 
from  prominent  poultry  breeders  of  the  state. 

An  incubator  and  brooder  and  various  tools  and  appli- 
ances will  need  to  be  purchased.  However,  many  of 
the  latter  can,  as  has  been  mentioned,  be  made  by  pupils, 
either  of  the  poultry  class  or  of  the  manual  training 
department,  and  their  cost  greatly  lessened  thereby. 

The  agricultural  library  should  be  well  supplied  with 


2l8   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

both  bulletins  and  books  on  poultry  culture,  and  fortu- 
nately there  is  a  wealth  of  very  good  material  to  choose 
from.  The  bulletins  may  be  selected  from  the  various 
lists  already  mentioned  in  discussing  other  agricultural 
courses  and  the  general  equipment  for  agriculture.  The 
farmers'  bulletins  on  poultry  will,  of  course,  be  found 
especially  helpful,  and  also  the  Cornell  Reading  Course 
for  Farmers  bulletins  on  poultry.  Excellent  poultry 
bulletins  have  also  been  published  by  the  Maine,  Oregon, 
Connecticut,  North  Carolina,  Maryland,  and  Rhode 
Island  stations. 

A  good  collection  of  poultry  books  may  be  selected 
from  the  list  given  below. 

American  Standard  of  Perfection,  as  adopted  by  the  American 
Poultry  Association.  Beaver,  Pa.  (Box  303).  American 
Poultry  Assn.  1911. 

BRIGHAM,  A.  A.  Progressive  Poultry  Culture.  Cedar  Rapids, 
la.  The  Torch  Press.  1908. 

BROWNE,  E.  Races  of  Domestic  Poultry.  Lond.  Edward 
Arnold.  1906. 

HAWKS,  E.  B.  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture.  Clinton, 
Wis.  E.  B.  Hawks.  1909. 

KAINS,  M.  G.  Profitable  Poultry  Production.  N.  Y.  Orange 
Judd.  1910. 

McGREW,  T.  F.,  and  HOWARD,  G.  E.  Perfected  Poultry  of 
America.  Detroit,  Mich.  Howard  Pub.  Co.  1908. 

PEARL,  R.,  and  Others,  comp.  Poultry  Diseases  and  their  Treat- 
ment. Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Orono, 
Me.  1911. 


THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   POULTRY   COURSE  219 

Poultry  Houses  and  Fixtures,  yth  ed.  (Various  authors.) 
Quincy,  111.  Reliable  Poultry  Journal.  1910. 

POWELL,  E.  C.  Making  Poultry  Pay.  N.  Y.  Orange  Judd. 
1907. 

QUISENBERRY,  T.  E.  Poultryman's  Guide.  State  Poultry  Ex- 
periment Station,  Mountain  Grove,  Mo.  1911. 

ROBINSON,  J.  H.  Common  Sense  Poultry  Doctor.  Bost. 
Farm  Poultry  Pub.  Co.  1908. 

ROBINSON,  J.  H.  Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture. 
Bost.  Ginn  &  Co.  1912. 

ROBINSON,  J.  H.     Poultry  Craft.    N.  Y.     Orange  Judd.     1899. 

SALMON,  D.E.    Diseases  of  Poultry.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.     1899. 

VALENTINE,  C.  S.  How  to  keep  Hens  for  Profit.  N.  Y. 
Macm.  1910. 

WATSON,  G.  C.    Farm  Poultry.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1908. 

OUTLINES  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOL   POULTRY   COURSES 


New  York  State  Education  Department  Poultry  Husbandry 
Course.  (New  York  State  Education  Department,  Syllabus 
for  Agriculture  in  Secondary  Schools.  1910.  Adapted  from 

pp.  95-103-) 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Half-year  course.     (Daily,  i  laboratory  period  per  week.) 
RECITATIONS 

Feeding  fowls.     (4-6  recitations.) 

Breeds.     (3-5  recitations.) 

Importance  of  vitality.     (2-3  recitations.) 

Breeding.     (3-5  recitations.) 

Killing  and  picking.     (1-2  recitations.) 

Marketing.     (2-4  recitations.) 

Diseases,  parasites,  vices  and  sanitation.     (3-5  recitations.) 


220    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Building  poultry  houses.     (5-8  recitations.) 
Natural  incubation.     (2-3  recitations.) 
Artificial  incubation.     (2-3  recitations.) 
Brooding  with  hens.     (1-3  recitations.) 
Artificial  brooding.     (1-3  recitations.) 
Feeding  chicks.     (3-5  recitations.) 
Fattening.     (1-3  recitations.) 
Capons  and  broilers.     (1-3  recitations.) 
Turkeys.     (1-3  recitations.) 
Ducks  and  geese.     (1-3  recitations.) 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

Exercises  i,  2.     Feed  hoppers. 

Exercise  3.    Mixing  feed. 

Exercise  4.    Parts  of  a  fowl. 

Exercises  5,  6.    Killing  and  picking. 

Exercise  7.    Age,  sex,  and  vitality. 

Exercise  8.    Egg  and  meat  types. 

Exercise  9.    Making  materials  for  killing  lice. 

Exercise  10.     Killing  lice. 

Exercises  n  and  12.     Houses. 

Exercise  13.     Coop  for  hen  with  chicks. 

Exercise  14.     Structure  of  the  egg. 

Exercise  15.    Marketing  eggs. 

Exercise  16.    Preserving  eggs. 

B 

HIGH  SCHOOL  POULTRY  COURSE 

(Outline  from  "  Course  in  Agriculture  for  the  High  Schools  of 
Maine."     1909.    pp.  24-27.) 

i.  Poultry  culture. 

a.  Attractiveness. 

b.  Advantages. 

c.  Evidences  of  growth. 


THE    HIGH    SCHOOL   POULTRY   COURSE  221 

d.  Statistics. 

e.  Successful  poultry  keeping  depends    upon    the    general, 

accurate,  and  faithful  performances  of  many  small 
tasks.  The  characteristics  of  the  successful  poultry- 
man. 

2.  Purpose  of  poultry  keeping. 

a.  As  a  part  of  farm  stock. 

b.  As  a  special  business. 

c.  As  fancy  poultry. 

3.  Location  of  poultry  buildings. 

a.  Soil  and  drainage. 

b.  Aspect  and  situation. 

c.  Water  supply. 

d.  Laying  and  breeding  houses. 

e.  Coops  and  colony  houses. 

/.   Poultry  appliances,  —  hoppers,  nests,  yards,  fences,  etc. 

4.  Types  and  breeds  of  poultry. 

a.  Meat  types  —  characteristics  and  breeds. 

b.  Egg  types  —  breeds  and  characteristics. 

c.  Broiler  types. 

d .  Roaster  and  soft  roaster  —  types  and  characteristics. 

e.  Market  types  —  general  purpose,  breeds,  farm  poultry. 

5.  Selection  of  breeding  stock. 

a.  When  to  select. 

b.  Points  to  be  considered. 

(1)  Constitutional  vigor  and  physical  perfection. 

(2)  Breed  shape. 

(3)  Comb  and  head  appurtenances. 

(4)  Color  of  plumage. 

6.  Anatomy  of  the  fowl. 

a.  Philosophy  of  the  moult  (growth  of  feathers). 

b.  The  bony  framework. 

c.  Digestive  system. 

d.  The  ovarian  system. 


222    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

7.  Feeds  and  feeding. 

a.  The  hard  grains. 

b.  The  ground  grains. 

c.  Mixtures  and  mashes  (wet  and  dry). 

d.  Animal  feed  (beef  scraps,  green  bone,  etc.). 

e.  Green  feed. 

8.  Egg  production. 

a.  Egg  production  vs.  meat  production. 

b.  Factors  in  egg  production. 

(1)  Good  stock,  well  grown. 

(2)  A  variety  of  feed,  well  fed. 

(3)  Suitable  buildings. 

(4)  Exercise. 

(5)  Sympathetic  interest. 

9.  Incubation. 

a.  Selection  of  eggs  to  set. 

b.  Natural  vs.  artificial  incubation. 

c.  Setting  hens. 

d.  History  of  artificial  incubation. 

e.  Chinese  and  Egyptian  methods. 
/.  Modern  types  of  machines. 

g.  Temperature. 
h.  Ventilation. 
i.  Moisture. 

j.  The  unknown  factor  (carbon  dioxide). 
k.  Lime  assimilation. 

/.    Manipulation  of  the  eggs  —  turning,  cooling,  etc. 
10.  Embryology. 

a.  Growth  and  development  of  the  embryo  in  the  shell. 

b.  Blood  rings,  dead  germs. 

c.  Rotten  eggs. 

d.  Chicks  fully  formed  dead  in  shell. 

e.  Cripples. 


THE   HIGH   SCHOOL  POULTRY    COURSE  223 

11.  Brooding. 

a.  Natural  vs.  artificial  methods. 

b.  Coops  for  hens  and  chickens. 

c.  Brooders  —  types  and  systems. 

d.  Chinese  and  Egyptian  methods. 

e.  Fireless  brooders  (Philo  system). 
/.  Temperature. 

g.  Ventilation. 

h.  Summer  vs.  winter  brooding. 

12.  The  chick. 

a.  Management. 

b.  Feeds. 

c.  Mortality. 

(1)  Anemia  —  symptoms. 

(2)  Diarrhoea  —  symptoms. 

(3)  Pneumonia  —  symptoms. 

(4)  Lung  weakness  —  symptoms. 

13.  Growing  young  stock. 

a.  Houses  and  appliances. 

b.  Management. 

c.  Range. 

d.  Feeds. 

e.  Selection. 
/.  Broilers. 
g.  Roasters. 

h.  Caponizing. 
i.   Soft  roasters. 

14.  Fattening  and  killing. 

a.  Pen  fattening. 

b.  Crate  fattening. 

c.  Machine  fattening. 

d.  Feeds. 

e.  Killing. 

(i)  Dislocation. 


224       MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

(2)  Sticking.  • 

(3)  Bleeding. 
/.  Picking. 

(1)  Scalding. 

(2)  Dry  picking. 
15-  Marketing. 

a.  Drawn  or  undrawn. 

b.  Shaping. 

c.  Trussing. 

d.  Packing  —  in  barrels ;  in  boxes. 

e.  English  and  French  methods. 
1 6.  Dressed  poultry. 

a.  Weight. 

b.  General  appearance. 

c.  Fleshing  —  finish. 

d.  Softness  —  mellow  to  the  touch. 

e.  Texture. 
/.   Faking. 

17.  Eggs. 

a.  The  structure  of  an  egg. 

b.  Grading  —  weight,  size,  color,  and  uniformity. 

c.  Appearance  at  candling. 

d.  Packages. 

e.  Preservatives. 

(1)  Cold  storage. 

(2)  Water  glass. 

(3)  Lime  water. 

(4)  Salt. 
18.  Duck  culture. 

a.  Breeds  of. 

b.  Houses. 

c.  Feeds. 

d.  General  management. 

e.  Incubation  of  eggs. 


THE   HIGH   SCHOOL  POULTRY   COURSE  225 

/.   Rearing  young  stock. 
g.  Marketing. 

19.  Geese  and  turkeys. 

a.  Breeds. 

b.  Housing. 

c.  Feeding. 

d.  General  management. 

e.  Hatching  and  rearing  of  young  stock. 

20.  Insects  and  diseases. 

a.  Insects. 

b.  Common  ailments. 

c.  Contagious  diseases. 

d.  Remedies. 

e.  Prevention  better  than  cure. 

PRACTICUMS 

1.  Make  a  list  of  equipment  for  use  in  connection 
with  a  high  school  poultry  course,  to  cost  not  over  $75. 
Assume  that  one  dozen  pure-bred  fowls  and  a  cock  are 
donated  by  an  interested  school  patron.     In  case  build- 
ings or  appliances  are  to  be  made  by  students,  give 
approximate  cost  of  materials,  and  state  arrangements 
to  be  made  for  doing  the  work. 

2.  Draw  to  a  scale  plans  for  a  poultry  house  and  runs 
for  a  high  school  where  it  is  the  intention  to  keep  about 
two  dozen  hens,  one-half  of  which  belong  to  an  egg  breed 
while  the  others  are  of  <i  general  purpose  or  meat  breed. 


CHAPTER  X 

HORTICULTURE 

THE  high  school  course  in  horticulture  may  be  given 
during  either  the  sopjiomore  or  junior  year.  The  junior 
year  is  usually  considered  preferable,  in  some  cases 
because  it  is  not  thought  well  to  defer  all  animal  study 
as  late  as  the  third  year,  and  in  other  cases  because  it 
is  considered  desirable  for  students  to  have  a  preliminary 
course  in  botany  during  the  sophomore  year. 

If  the  community  is  one  particularly  well  adapted  to 
horticultural  pursuits,  the  course  should  extend  through- 
out the  year.  If  live  stock  interests  are  paramount, 
the  work  in  horticulture  may  be  confined  to  one  half 
year  and  the  other  half  given  to  a  special  live  stock 
course.  If  the  main  farm  enterprises  of  the  community 
are  the  raising  of  staple  field  crops,  as  hay,  grain, 
tobacco,  or  cotton,  one-half  of  this  year  may  be  devoted 
to  a  special  study  of  field  crops.1 

1  Where  it  seems  advisable  to  give  one-half  of  the  third  year  to  a 
special  study  of  field  crops,  supplementary  to  that  given  in  connection 
with  first  year  work,  the  crops  studied  will  naturally  be  those  of  particular 
interest  or  importance  locally,  as  corn,  cotton,  sweet  potatoes,  etc.,  for 
the  South,  and  hay,  wheat,  oats,  etc.,  in  the  North.  Useful  outlines  for 
crop  study  will  be  found  in  the  Maine  and  Minnesota  outlines  for  high 
school  courses  in  agriculture ;  and  many  suggestions  as  to  laboratory 

226 


HORTICULTURE  227 

The  materials  included  in  the  horticultural  course 
probably  vary  in  different  sections  more  than  those  of 
any  other  agricultural  course  given  in  the  high  school. 
This  is  true  not  only  because  of  the  great  variation  as 
to  the  fruits  which  can  be  grown  in  a  given  locality,  but 
also  because  of  the  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  what  topics 
should  be  included  in  the  high  school  horticultural  course. 
For  example,  Professor  C.  P.  Halligan,  of  Michigan, 
believes  that  the  ideal  course  in  horticulture  for  the  high 
schools  of  Michigan  would  be  comprised  of  work  in  plant 
propagation  combined  with  vegetable  gardening.  In 
certain  California  schools  it  is  thought  that  the  course 
in  horticulture  should  be  limited  to  a  study  of  orchard, 
vine,  and  small  fruits,  after  a  preliminary  study  of  plant 
propagation.  The  New  York  State  Education  Depart- 
ment " Syllabus  in  Agriculture  for  Secondary  Schools" 
suggests  only  apple  growing  and  general  fruit  growing 
for  the  horticultural  work.  Some  agricultural  teachers 
believe  that  the  work  in  horticulture  should  be  largely 
limited  to  one  or  two  phases  of  the  subject ;  still  others 
believe  that  the  course  should  be  a  general  one,  including 
work  in  plant  propagation,  orchard  and  bush  fruits, 
viticulture,  vegetable  gardening,  and  even  landscape 
gardening  and  floriculture. 

and  field  work  are  given  in  the  publications  listed  in  Chapter  VI.  Wilson 
and  Warburton's  "  Field  Crops  "  is  intended  as  a  high  school  text  for  field 
crops.  Duggar's  "  Southern  Field  Crops "  is  intended  "  for  advanced 
high  school  and  for  college." 


228         MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

It  is  argued  that,  according  to  the  last  plan,  a  general 
survey  of  the  subject  would  be  acquired  which  would 
be  much  the  same  in  schools  everywhere.  The  special 
fruits,  vegetables,  flowers,  and  trees  studied  under  the 
various  divisions  of  the  subject  might,  however,  differ 
almost  entirely  in  high  schools  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  to  suit  the  local  conditions.  For  example, 
the  citrus  fruits,  nuts,  grapes,  etc.,  most  studied  in  South- 
ern California  would  be  almost  ignored  in  the  majority 
of  Eastern  high  schools,  —  and  properly  so,  since  the 
kinds  and  varieties  of  fruits  grown  there  are  quite  differ- 
ent. Many  vegetables  to  which  considerable  time  should 
be  given  in  the  South  would  be  unprofitable  subjects 
of  study  in  the  North.  While  the  broad,  general  outline 
mentioned  would  serve  for  schools  all  over  the  country, 
yet  the  special  fruits  and  vegetables  to  be  studied  might 
well,  as  has  been  said,  be  quite  different  in  different 
schools. 

Where  the  horticultural  course  extends  through  a  full 
year,  this  scheme  seems  by  far  the  wisest  for  the  organi- 
zation of  the  work ;  and  even  where  the  course  is  limited 
to  a  half  year  it  will  probably  usually  be  found  well  to 
give  this  broad,  general  survey  of  the  horticultural  field. 
In  this  case,  however,  the  number  of  special  fruits  and 
vegetables  to  be  studied  must,  obviously,  be  very  limited. 

There  should  be  included,  then,  in  the  horticultural 
work  of  every  high  school  a  review  of  methods  of  plant 


u 


HORTICULTURE  2  29 

propagation  studied  in  the  first  year  agriculture  work, 
with  additional  study  and  practice  in  the  propagation 
of  plants  by  cuttings,  budding,  grafting,  etc.  This 
should  be  followed  by  a  general  survey  of  the  subject  of 
pomology  and  some  special  study  of  the  more  important 
orchard,  vine,  and  small  fruits  grown  in  the  locality. 

In  this  special  study  the  botanical  relations,  origin, 
and  history  of  each  of  the  fruits  studied  may  well  be 
taken  up  first,  followed  by  a  study  of  its  horticultural 
importance  and  food  value,  the  extent  of  its  cultivation, 
soils  and  localities  to  which  it  is  adapted,  plant  food 
needed,  and  the  methods  of  propagation,  planting, 
culture,  training,  and  pruning  which  are  considered  to 
give  the  best  crop  results.  Irrigation  should  be  con- 
sidered in  localities  where  irrigation  is  practiced.  Vari- 
eties of  local  importance  should  be  noted.  Pupils  should 
become  familiar  with  the  more  common  injurious  insects 
and  diseases  and  with  the  methods  of  combating  them. 
Methods  of  harvesting  and  marketing  should  be  studied. 

Olericulture  or  vegetable  gardening  may  well  follow 
the  work  in  pomology.  After  a  brief  consideration  of 
the  kinds  of  vegetable  gardening  and  its  importance 
as  an  industry,  the  class  should  become  familiar  with  the 
different  kinds  of  vegetables  and  should  study  in  some 
detail  the  history,  uses,  propagation,  culture,  and  mar- 
keting of  the  more  important  vegetables  of  each  class. 
The  growing  of  vegetables  should  be  considered  primarily 


230    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

from  the  viewpoint  of  the  home  vegetable  garden,  but 
commercial  aspects  and  the  growing  of  vegetables  as  an 
agricultural  industry  should  not  be  ignored. 

Probably  no  agricultural  subject  can  be  taught  more 
effectively  in  the  high  school  than  vegetable  gardening. 
Students  can  plan  and  carry  out  the  growing  of  vege- 
tables from  start  to  finish.  They  can  begin  with  the 
study  of  seed  catalogues  and  estimate  and  order  the 
seed  needed ;  they  can  prepare  the  soil,  seed,  transplant, 
thin,  and  cultivate;  and  they  can  even  harvest  and 
market  many  of  the  common  vegetable  crops  within 
the  time  limits  of  the  course.  They  may  also,  if  there 
is  a  domestic  science  department  in  the  school,  and  co- 
operation can  be  arranged,  see  and  hear  at  least  a  little 
of  the  many  ways  in  which  these  vegetables  may  be 
prepared  for  food  and  of  their  value  to  man  as  food. 

After  an  elementary  but  practical  study  of  vegetable 
gardening,  the  horticultural  course  should  include  a  few 
lectures,  at  least,  upon  the  general  principles  of  land- 
scape gardening  and  on  floriculture,  accompanied  by  as 
many  practicums  as  possible.  If  the  course  is  limited 
to  one-half  year,  it  is  evident  that  little  time  can  be 
taken  for  this.  But  in  a  year's  course  probably  at  least 
four  weeks  could  well  be  given  to  the  landscape  garden- 
ing and  two  weeks  to  floriculture.  In  cold  climates  it 
might  be  preferable  to  give  the  landscape  gardening 
and  floriculture  during  the  winter  weeks,  immediately 


HORTICULTURE  23! 

following  the  pomology,  which  would  probably  take 
all  of  the  first  semester.  The  vegetable  gardening 
should  then  be  given  last  in  the  course,  taking  about 
the  last  twelve  weeks  of  the  second  semester. 

At  the  close  of  this  chapter  is  given  an  outline  for  high 
school  horticulture,  prepared  for  a  California  high  school, 
following  the  lines  suggested.  Accompanying  it  are 
other  outlines  showing  the  character  of  the  work  recom- 
mended or  carried  on  in  other  schools.  Bulletin  38 
of  the  Minnesota  Department  of  Public  Instruction 
gives  interesting  outlines  for  one-semester  courses  in 
vegetable  gardening  and  in  fruit  growing. 

There  is  for  horticulture,  as  for  other  high  school  agri- 
cultural courses,  no  ideal  textbook.  Bailey's  "  Nursery 
Book,"  "  Pruning  Book,"  "  Principles  of  Vegetable  Gar- 
dening," and  " Principles  of  Fruit-growing"  are  all  con- 
siderably used  in  the  East  and  Middle  West,  as  also 
Fletcher's  "How  to  make  a  Fruit  Garden,"  and  Green's 
"Gardening."  In  California,  Wickson's  "California 
Fruits"  and  "California  Vegetables"  are  naturally  most 
used. 

It  is  evident  that  there  is  a  rich  opportunity  for  varied, 
useful,  and  interesting  laboratory  work  and  field  practi- 
cums  in  connection  with  the  wide  field  of  topics  covered 
in  high  school  horticulture.  Opinions  differ  as  to  the 
amount  of  time  which  should  be  devoted  to  the  practical 
work,  but  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  it  should  be 


232         MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

not  less  than  one-third  of  the  class  time,  and  that  one- 
half  is  desirable.  The  University  of  California  in  its 
recommendations  as  to  high  school  horticultural  work 
suggests  that  one-fifth  of  the  time  be  given  to  indoor 
laboratory  and  greenhouse  work,  two-fifths  to  outdoor 
practicums,  and  two-fifths  to  classroom,  recitation,  and 
lecture  work. 

So  numerous  and  interesting  are  the  horticultural 
practicums  possible  in  connection  with  the  work  that  the 
chief  difficulty  of  the  teacher  in  deciding  upon  the  prac- 
tical work  will  probably  be  one  of  selection.  However, 
since  the  propagation  of  plants,  especially  propagation 
by  seeds,  has  already  been  considered  in  first  year  agri- 
culture and  possibly  in  botany,  the  practical  work  along 
these  lines  can  be  limited  somewhat  and  most  of  the  time 
used  for  other  things.  Yet  practice  in  propagation  by 
cuttings,  layers,  budding,  etc.,  should  not  be  omitted, 
and  students  should  have  ample  opportunity  to  become 
familiar  with  methods  of  making  the  various  kinds  of 
grafts,  of  preparing  grafting  wax,  and  other  processes. 

Time  can  occasionally  be  economized  by  substituting 
demonstrations  or  group  exercises  for  individual  prac- 
ticums. This  must  never  be  at  the  expense  of  the  pupil's 
thoroughness  of  knowledge,  however,  and,  in  general, 
he  will  need  to  learn  by  doing  things  himself. 

In  connection  with  the  vegetable  gardening  work, 
opportunity  should  be  given,  as  has  been  indicated,  for 


HORTICULTURE  233 

practical  garden  work.  Individual  school  gardens  are 
desirable  wherever  possible.  If  they  cannot  be  provided, 
each  student  should  have  an  individual  garden  at  home, 
cared  for  under  the  supervision  of  the  horticultural 
teacher,  and  there  should  be  a  general  garden  on  the 
school  grounds. 

The  garden  grounds  may  be  plowed  and  harrowed 
by  the  school  farm  superintendent  or  other  help,  if  de- 
sired, but  all  other  garden  work  should  be  done  by  the 
students  themselves.  They  should  mark  out  and  pre- 
pare the  plots  for  seeding,  plant  seeds  in  the  seed-bed 
and  the  garden  plot,  transplant,  thin,  cultivate,  and, 
finally,  harvest  and  market  the  crops  so  far  as  is  possible. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  size  desirable  for  individual 
gardens.  One  school  recommends  plots  13  by  45  feet; 
another  recommends  10  by  30  or  40  feet;  another  5 
feet  by  i  rod;  and  still  another  12  by  34  feet.  Va- 
rious factors  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  —  the 
ground  available,  the  amount  of  time  which  it  is  desired 
to  devote  to  the  work,  the  climate,  and  so  on.  Each 
teacher  will  have  to  determine  for  himself  the  size  best 
suited  for  individual  gardens  at  his  school.  In  general, 
however,  it  should  be  said  that  they  should  be  large 
enough  to  give  practical  demonstrations  of  the  best 
methods  of  growing  the  vegetables  selected  for  a  home 
garden,  but  should  not  be  so  large  that  any  student 
will  be  unduly  burdened  by  the  entire  care  of  his  garden. 


234        MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

The  growing  of  certain  vegetables  may  be  required 
of  all  members  of  the  class,  but  opportunity  should  also 
be  given  for  each  student  to  select  and  grow,  to  the  best 
of  his  ability,  other  vegetables  and  flowers.  It  is  recom- 
mended by  D.  J.  Crosby,  formerly  of  the  United  States 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  that  the  experimental  or 
contest  idea  be  put  in  the  work.  The  boy  who  has 
worked  in  a  garden  more  or  less  at  home  will  then  not 
complain  because  he  is  asked  to  go  out  and  do  weeding, 
thinning,  or  other  things  that  he  feels  he  knows  how  to 
do  perfectly  well.  The  object  of  raising  vegetables  will 
be  accompanied  by  another  object  which  will  renew  his 
enthusiasm  in  case  he  is  inclined  to  weary  in  his  well- 
doing. 

While  it  is  the  usual  practice,  and  preferable,  for  each 
individual  garden  to  represent  a  miniature  kitchen  gar- 
den, yet  in  many  schools  the  garden  space  is  divided 
into  plots,  each  of  which  is  given  up  to  the  growing  of 
varieties  of  a  particular  kind  of  flower  or  vegetable,  as 
tomatoes,  or  potatoes,  and  pupils  work  on  all  the  plots. 
This  is  practically  the  same  thing  as  having  one  large 
common  garden. 

Both  community  and  individual  plots  have  their  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages.  Probably  the  ideal  ar- 
rangement calls  for  some  work  in  each.  It  is  usually 
more  difficult  to  interest  high  school  pupils  in  a  common 
garden  than  in  individual  plots,  so  strong  is  the 


HORTICULTURE  235 

instinct  for  personal  possession  of  property  in  the 
adolescent.  Moreover,  the  individual  plot  gives  training 
in  responsibility  and  independence,  teaches  the  privi- 
leges and  responsibilities  of  ownership,  and  inculcates 
respect  for  the  property  of  others.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  community  garden  teaches  harmonious  coop- 
eration and  altruism,  both  important  lessons.  Where 
feasible,  then,  each  pupil  should  work  an  individual 
garden  plot  independently,  giving  some  time  to  the  care 
of  a  class  community  garden. 

Interest  in  the  community  garden  may  be  aroused 
in  various  ways,  among  which  is  the  organization  of  the 
class  in  a  sort  of  gardening  club,  the  purpose  of  which  is 
not  only  to  make  a  successful  garden  as  a  part  of  the 
work  of  the  horticulture  class,  but  that  it  may  return 
financial  profit  to  the  class  or  "club."  The  profits 
may  go  to  purchase  athletic  goods  for  school  teams  or 
for  permanent  club  or  class  memorials  at  the  school, 
in  the  form  of  books,  pictures,  or  other  useful  or  orna- 
mental properties.  This  gives  incentive  for  the  work 
and  insures  better  cooperation.  When  the  proper  selec- 
tion of  varieties  of  vegetables  to  be  raised,  or  the  manner 
of  planting,  cultivating,  and  harvesting,  means  profit 
to  the  class,  seed  catalogues  and  cultural  methods  be- 
come matters  of  vital  interest.  Needless  to  say,  in  case 
this  plan  is  followed,  the  cost  of  seeds  and  hired  labor 
should  be  deducted  from  the  class  profits.  This  brings 


236        MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

up  the  subject  of  cost  of  production  and  affords  an 
opportunity  for  keeping  of  records  and  accounts,  em- 
phasizing the  commercial  aspects  of  vegetable  growing 
in  a  useful  way. 

In  both  the  individual  and  community  gardens  it  is 
desirable,  so  far  as  is  feasible,  to  place  students  on  their 
own  responsibility,  —  to  require  them  to  plan  their  work 
and  work  their  plan,  —  though  all  is  subject  to  the  sug- 
gestion and  criticism  of  the  teacher. 

Among  the  indoor  laboratory  exercises  which  may 
be  given  in  connection  with  this  work  is  the  planning 
and  drawing  to  a  scale  of  vegetable  and  fruit  gardens 
for  different  sized  families,  with  the  object  of  providing 
a  succession  of  fresh  fruit  and  vegetables  in  the  needed 
quantities  throughout  as  much  of  the  year  as  possible, 
from  the  home  garden.  Working  drawings  may  be  made 
for  hotbeds,  and  cold  frames,  which  may  later,  if  desired, 
be  constructed  and  used  by  the  class.  The  kind  and 
amount  of  seeds  and  plants  required  for  a  given-sized 
garden  may  be  estimated  and  sample  orders  made 
out. 

In  connection  with  the  fruit-growing  part  of  the  hor- 
ticultural course,  students  may,  as  indoor  work,  trace 
upon  outline  maps  of  their  state  the  boundaries  of 
the  different  fruit  districts.  Areas  especially  adapted 
to  the  growing  of  the  various  fruits  should  be  marked. 
The  character  of  each  region  should  be  indicated,  the  ele- 


HORTICULTURE  237 

vation,  soil  peculiarities,  rainfall,  etc.  Drawings  should 
be  made  for  the  notebook  showing  the  proper  method 
of  making  different  kinds  of  grafts.  Plans  for  the  home 
orchard  should  be  made,  drawn  to  a  scale,  indicating 
method  of  placing  trees,  kinds  of  trees,  etc.  The  com- 
mon sprays  may  be  mixed  in  the  laboratory,  and  graft- 
ing wax  made. 

Among  the  field  trips  will  be  excursions  to  nurseries 
to  inspect  nursery  stock  of  different  kinds  and  ages, 
trips  to  different  kinds  of  orchards  to  note  effects  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  pruning,  trips  to  vineyards,  to  packing 
houses,  to  public  markets,  and  even  to  canning  factories 
if  possible.  Collection  should  be  made,  at  least  dur- 
ing the  first  year  that  horticulture  is  given,  of  typical 
specimens  of  the  leading  varieties  of  fruits  grown  in  the 
vicinity.  As  many  of  these  as  will  be  useful  should  be 
properly  preserved  in  glass  jars  and  kept  in  a  permanent 
school  exhibit  for  the  use  of  future  classes.  Insects 
troublesome  to  common  fruits  may  also  be  collected 
for  a  similar  purpose.  But  the  fact  should  be  empha- 
sized that  when  materials  are  collected  in  this  way  for 
future  as  well  as  present  reference  and  use,  sufficient 
preparation  should  be  made  for  taking  care  of  them 
properly.  Materials  should  be  suitably  mounted  or  pre- 
served and  carefully  labeled  and  catalogued,  that  they 
may  always  be  in  shape  for  convenient  use  and  not  likely 
to  be  destroyed. 


238         MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

As  outdoor  practicums,  students  should  have  practice 
in  budding,  grafting,  and  pruning  fruit  trees,  grape  vines, 
and  small  fruit  bushes;  they  should  not  only  mix  the 
different  sprays,  but  they  should  have  practice  in  apply- 
ing them.  They  should  mark  out  orchards  in  vacant 
lots  according  to  different  planting  systems;  and  they 
should  plant  at  least  a  few  trees  on  the  school  farm  or 
elsewhere. 

Ornamental  trees  on  the  campus,  fruit  trees  on  the 
school  farm,  and  the  school  vineyard  will  all  furnish 
opportunities  for  practical  work  in  pruning.  In  many 
high  schools  excellent  practice  work  is  also  done  in  the 
orchards  and  vineyards  of  the  surrounding  community. 
Where  the  school  farm  does  not  furnish  sufficient  oppor- 
tunity for  practice,  the  community  must  be  resorted  to. 
In  one  school,  we  are  told,  "Work  was  done  in  trimming 
raspberries,  blackberries,  currants,  grapes,  and  vines 
of  all  sorts  all  around  town."  Students  in  the  same 
school  one  year  pruned  an  old  orchard  across  the  street 
from  the  school  building,  and  the  next  year  sprayed  it. 

In  the  landscape  gardening  work  there  should  be, 
among  the  indoor  practicums,  the  making  of  simple 
planting  plans  for  the  home  and  for  the  school  grounds, 
first,  in  their  present  condition,  and,  second,  showing 
suggested  improvements.  Buildings  should  be  drawn 
to  a  scale  on  these  plans,  and  all  trees  and  shrubs  num- 
bered. With  each  planting  plan  should  be  a  key,  refer- 


HORTICULTURE  239 

ring  to  the  numbers,  explaining  what  kinds  of  plants 
are  used  and  what  ones  it  is  proposed  to  add,  with  an 
itemized  estimate  of  the  probable  cost. 

In  connection  with  the  floriculture  there  may  be  sowing 
of  flower  seeds,  mixing  of  soils,  potting  seedlings,  and 
repotting  larger  plants.  Window  gardens  may  be 
planned  and  started  and  plans  for  flower  beds  made. 

The  general  tendency  in  many  schools  is  to  neglect 
the  important  laboratory  and  outdoor  work  and  to  em- 
phasize the  textbook  and  lecture  work.  Too  much 
cannot  be  said  against  this  neglect  of  the  practical. 
And  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  in  a  few  schools  there  seems 
to  be  an  almost  equally  undesirable  tendency  toward 
the  other  extreme.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
while  field  work  is  necessary,  it  is  as  a  means  to  an  end. 
It  is  an  essential  factor  in  training ;  it  supplements  the 
class  work  and  is  a  part  of  the  process  by  which  we  should 
obtain  definite  educational  results.  But  it  is  only  a 
part  of  the  process.  The  acquisition  of  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  facts  and  principles  governing  operations 
must  accompany  field  work  if  it  is  to  have  the  best  re- 
sults. The  doing  of  pruning,  grafting,  gardening,  and 
other  horticultural  work  lacks  educative  value  when  the 
principles  underlying  the  work  are  neglected,  however 
well  the  work  may  be  performed. 

Suggestions  as  to  laboratory  work  and  outdoor  prac- 
ticums  in  horticulture  are  given  in  various  publications. 


240    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

One  of  the  most  useful  of  these  is  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations  Bulletin  178,  a  "  Course  in  Fruit  Growing  for 
Movable  Schools  of  Agriculture."  This  gives  directions 
for  over  sixty  excellent  exercises  and,  in  addition,  outlines 
lectures  and  reading  assignments.  The  New  York 
State  Education  Department  "Syllabus  in  Agriculture 
for  Secondary  Schools"  (1910)  gives  directions  for  thirty- 
eight  exercises,  with  reading  references;  the  Maine 
"  Course  in  Agriculture  for  High  Schools,"  published 
by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  gives 
useful  outlines  and  a  considerable  number  of  exercises; 
the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  Department  of  Agri- 
cultural Education  Bulletin  No.  7  (1911),  "A  Course  in 
Agriculture  for  the  High  Schools  of  Michigan,"  suggests 
many  others.  Helpful  suggestions  will  be  found  also  in 
Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  Teachers' 
Series,  No.  4,  1912,  "Oklahoma  School  Hotbeds"; 
West  Virginia  State  College  of  Agriculture,  "School 
Agriculture,"  vol.  2, 1911,  No.  2,  "Lessons  on  Fruit  Grow- 
ing"; Farmers'  Bulletin  157,  "The  Propagation  of 
Plants";  Farmers'  Bulletin  218,  "The  School  Garden"; 
University  of  California  Circular  59,  "Tree  Growing  in  the 
Public  Schools";  Fletcher,  S.  W.,  "Elementary  Course 
in  Horticulture  for  the  High  Schools  of  Michigan,"  pub- 
lished by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion as  Bulletin  No.  28,  in  1908 ;  and  Palmer,  C.  F., 
"Elementary  Horticulture  for  California  Schools." 


HORTICULTURE  24! 

A  part  of  the  school  farm  will  be  given  up,  as  has  been 
indicated,  to  school  gardens  for  the  horticulture  class 
and  to  small  orchard  and  vineyard  tracts  planted  by  the 
class  to  illustrate  class  work.  In  addition,  a  part  of 
the  farm  should  be  devoted  to  horticultural  demon- 
strations and  experiments  for  the  benefit  of  the  com- 
munity. New  fruits  and  vegetables  should  be  grown 
for  observation  and  testing.  New  varieties  of  fruits 
and  vegetables  already  grown  in  the  community  should 
be  tried  for  comparison  with  the  varieties  commonly 
grown.  Experiments  in  hybridizing  and  selection  may 
well  be  carried  on,  as  also  in  budding  and  grafting. 

The  equipment  for  the  work  in  horticulture  should, 
if  possible,  include  a  greenhouse,  a  lath-house,  or  both. 
Needless  to  say,  they  should  be  conveniently  located 
for  class  work  and  for  the  care  of  plants,  and  should 
be  properly  equipped  with  benches,  flats,  flower  pots  of 
different  sizes,  soil  sieves,  and  other  needed  materials 
and  tools.  In  cold  climates  the  greenhouse  is  necessary 
for  the  best  kind  of  work,  but  in  a  warm  climate,  like 
that  in  parts  of  California,  a  lath-house  may  be  made  to 
serve  many  of  its  uses  very  satisfactorily. 

In  the  greenhouse  much  of  the  plant  propagation  work 
of  both  the  first  year  and  the  horticultural  course  will 
be  carried  on.  Plants  grown  here  will  furnish  materials 
for  botany  and  other  laboratory  work.  Here  a  place 
and  opportunity  is  offered  for  much  valuable  problem 


242       MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

and  demonstration  work,  a  place  is  provided  where 
seedlings  can  be  grown  for  later  transplanting  to  the 
school  gardens  or  elsewhere,  for  growing  tender  plants 
which  do  not  do  well  out-of-doors,  for  practical  work 
in  inclement  weather,  and  for  many  other  purposes. 
Sufficient  space  should  be  provided  in  the  greenhouse  for 
all  members  of  a  class  to  work  at  the  benches ;  and  there 
should  be  adequate  storage  room  for  flats,  pots,  soils, 
soil  sieves,  and  other  tools.  A  part  of  the  space  under 
the  benches  may  be  utilized  for  storage,  but  it  is  prefer- 
able to  have  a  small  room  connected  with  the  greenhouse 
for  this  purpose.  The  space  under  the  benches  can 
then  be  used  for  ferns,  bulbs,  and  other  plants  which  like 
shade  and  dampness. 

The  lath-house  may,  as  has  been  said,  be  made  to  take 
the  place  of  the  greenhouse  in  certain  climates ;  and 
nearly  everywhere  it  will  be  found  useful.  Its  chief 
use  is  perhaps  to  shelter  and  protect  such  plants  as  re- 
quire plenty  of  shade  and  moisture  for  their  best  de- 
velopment; but  it  also  furnishes  a  comfortable  place 
to  work  in  hot  weather,  if  provided  with  suitable  benches. 
It  serves  to  accommodate  flats  of  seedlings  of  such 
plants  as  are,  for  the  time,  unsuited  to  outdoor  culture ; 
it  is  a  good  place  for  hardening  off  greenhouse  plants 
which  are  later  to  be  put  outside ;  and  it  may  be  used 
for  many  other  purposes.  In  addition,  the  cost  of  a 
lath-house  ($20  to  $30)  is  very  low  compared  with  that 


HORTICULTURE  243 

of  a  greenhouse.  Where  a  greenhouse  is  necessary, 
the  lath-house  may  be  dispensed  with.  But  in  warm 
climates  where  the  use  of  the  lath-house  is  feasible,  it 
is  recommended.1 

For  outdoor  practicum  work  in  horticulture,  garden 
space,  garden  tools,  seeds,  grafting  and  budding  knives, 
a  spray  pump,  and  various  other  tools  will  be  required. 
For  the  indoor  work  many  of  the  materials  and  much 
of  the  apparatus  needed  for  botany  and  for  first  year 
agriculture  will  be  utilized,  together  with  charts  showing 
cuttings,  grafting,  etc.,  charts  and  collections  illustrat- 
ing the  life  history  of  injurious  insects,  a  sample  collec- 
tion of  fruit  baskets  and  crates,  drawing  tables,  material 
for  making  grafting  wax  and  sprays,  and  various  other 
materials. 

On  pages  99  to  100  of  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
Bulletin  178,  "  Course  in  Fruit  Growing  for  Movable 
Schools  of  Agriculture,"  a  good  list  of  apparatus  and 
materials  is  given,  with  cost.  Suggestions  as  to  equip- 
ment may  also  be  obtained  from  University  of  Wisconsin 
Bulletin  441,  high  school  series  No.  12,  "The  High  School 
Course  in  Agriculture,"  pp.  21  to  23 ;  Josiah  Main's 
" Educational  Agriculture,"  pp.  58  to  59  (published  by 
the  Western  State  Normal  School,  Hays,  Kansas) ;  C.  F. 

1  For  a  description  of  a  lath-house  and  notes  as  to  its  construction 
and  cost,  see  Palmer,  C.  F.,  "  Elementary  Horticulture  for  California 
Schools,"  pp.  32-36. 


244       MATERIALS   AND    METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Palmer's  "  Elementary  Horticulture  for  California 
Schools  "  (Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  Normal  School  Bulletin) ; 
and  similar  publications. 

The  library  should  contain  at  least  all  of  the  United 
States  publications  on  horticulture  listed  in  Office  of  Ex- 
periment Stations  Circular  94,  "  Free  Publications  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  Classified  for  the  Use  of 
Teachers,"  many  of  the  publications  listed  on  pages  97 
to  99  of  the  "  Course  in  Fruit  Growing  for  Movable 
Schools,"  and  all  bulletins  and  circulars  of  the  State 
Experiment  Station  on  horticulture.  A  generous  selec- 
tion from  the  publications  of  other  state  experiment 
stations,  state  boards  of  agriculture  and  horticulture,  and 
the  publications  of  horticultural  societies  will  also  be 
found  useful ;  and,  not  least  important,  there  should  be 
a  good  collection  of  catalogues  and  other  publications  of 
reliable  nursery  firms  of  the  state. 

Students  in  the  horticulture  class  may  well  be  en- 
couraged to  collect  for  themselves  state  and  government 
bulletins  and  circulars  on  horticultural  topics,  nursery 
catalogues,  and  similar  free  publications.  They  will  not 
only  prove  valuable  for  reference  to  the  student  and  in 
his  home,  but  much  valuable  information  will  be  picked 
up  incidentally  while  collecting  them. 

A  good  book  list  for  the  school  horticultural  collection 
may  be  selected  from  such  publications  as  the  follow- 
ing:- 


HORTICULTURE  245 

BAILEY,  L.  H.     Evolution  of  our  Native  Fruits.     N.  Y.     Macm. 

1906. 
BAILEY,  L.  H.     Farm  and   Garden  Rule-book.    N.  Y.     Macm. 

1911. 

BAILEY,  L.  H.     Manual  of  Gardening.     N.  Y.     Macm.     1910. 
BAILEY,  L.  H.     Nursery  Book.    N.  Y.     Macm.     1007. 
BAILEY,  L.  H.     Principles  of   Fruit  Growing.     N.   Y.     Macm. 

1911. 
BAILEY,  L.  H.      Principles    of   Vegetable   Gardening.       N.    Y. 

Macm.     1908. 

BAILEY,  L.  H.     Pruning  Book.     N.  Y.     Macm.     1007. 
CARD,  F.  W.     Bush  Fruits.     N.  Y.     Macm.     1908. 
CHITTENDEN,   F.   H.    Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetables.    N.  Y. 

Orange  Judd.     1907. 
FLETCHER,  S.  W.     How    to    Make    a    Fruit    Garden.     N.    Y. 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.     1906. 

FRENCH,  A.     How  to  Grow  Vegetables.     N.  Y.     Macm.     1911. 
GREEN,  S.  B.     Popular  Fruit  Growing.     St.  Paul,  Minn.     Webb 

Pub.  Co.     1912. 
GREEN,  M.  L.     Among  School  Gardens.     N.  Y.     Charities  Pub. 

Co.     1910. 

HUME,  H.  H.     Citrus  Fruits.     N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.     1910. 
LODEMAN,  E.  G.     Spraying  of  Plants.     N.  Y.     Macm.     1008. 
MAYNARD,  S.  T.     Successful    Fruit    Culture.     N.    Y.      Orange 

Judd.     1005. 
PADDOCK,  W.,  and  WHIPPLE,  O.  B.     Fruit  Growing  in  the  Arid 

Regions.     N.  Y.     Macm.     1910. 
REXFORD,   E.  E.     Home   Floriculture.     N.   Y.     Orange  Judd. 

1903. 
SANDERSON,  E.  D.,  and  JACKSON,  C.  F.     Elementary  Entomology. 

Bost.     Ginn  &  Co.     1912. 
SAUNDERS,  W.     Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits.     Phil.     J.  B.  Lippin- 

cott.     1000. 


246         MATERIALS    AND    METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

UNDERWOOD,  L.     The  Garden  and  its  Accessories.     Bost.    Little, 

Brown  &  Co.     1906. 
WATTS,  R.  L.      Vegetable    Gardening.      N.  Y.     Orange    Judd. 

1912. 
WAUGH,  F.   A.     Beginner's   Guide   to    Fruit    Growing.     N.  Y. 

Orange  Judd.     1912. 
WAUGH,  F.  A.     Fruit  Harvesting,  Marketing,  and  Storing.     N.  Y. 

Orange  Judd.     1901. 
WAUGH,  F.   A.    Landscape  Gardening.     N.  Y.    John  Wiley  & 

Sons.     1911. 
WAUGH,  F.  A.     The  Landscape  Beautiful.     N.  Y.     Orange  Judd. 

1910. 
WICKSON,   E.   J.      California  Fruits.     San  Francisco.      Pacific 

Rural  Press.     1909. 
WICKSON,  E.  J.     California  Vegetables.     San  Francisco.     Pacific 

Rural  Press.     1910. 

Among  the  phases  of  community  work  which  may  be 
carried  on  by  the  horticultural  teacher  are  lectures,  illus- 
trated where  possible  by  demonstrations  and  lantern 
pictures;1  short  courses;  horticultural  institutes;  fruit 
and  vegetable  exhibits,  etc. 

A  horticultural  "at  home"  day  at  the  school,  when 
farmers  and  others  interested  are  especially  invited  to 
inspect  the  school  gardens,  the  greenhouse,  orchards, 
vegetable  and  fruit  exhibits  (either  in  the  permanent 
collection  or  from  the  crops  of  the  year),  might  be  made 
very  interesting  and  mutually  helpful.  An  excellent 
program  could  be  arranged  in  connection  with  this,  if 

1  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  14,  "  Farm 
Home  Grounds,"  may  be  found  useful  in  this  connection. 


HORTICULTURE  247 

desired,  at  which  successful  fruit  growers  might  be 
induced  to  give  their  experience  and  methods.  Students 
might  demonstrate  methods  of  making  grafts,  budding, 
and  other  horticultural  processes;  fruits  raised  on  the 
school  farm  and  canned,  preserved,  or  jellied  by  students 
of  the  domestic  science  department  might  be  shown  and 
perhaps  served  at  a  simple  luncheon ;  vegetables  raised 
on  the  school  grounds  could  be  prepared  and  served  by 
the  domestic  science  department  and  talks  given  on  the 
food  value  of  these  products. 

Innumerable  pleasing  methods  of  school  and  com- 
munity cooperation  suggest  themselves  and  can  readily 
be  worked  out  by  the  interested  teacher.  The  chief  diffi- 
culty is  that  time  is  all  too  short  to  carry  out  as  many 
of  the  interesting  and  educative  possibilities  as  the  alert 
teacher  will  desire. 

OUTLINES  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  WORK  IN  HORTI- 
CULTURE 

A 

Outline  for  horticultural  work  in  the  high  school.     (University 
of  California  Circular  47,  "Agriculture  in  the  High  Schools," 
pp.  13-14-) 
I.   Horticulture  and  viticulture. 

A.    Study  fruits  and  vines  of  California  and  home  regions. 

1.  Varieties. 

2.  Methods  of  growth,  propagation,  pruning,  irrigation 

and  cultivation. 

3.  Crops  —  harvesting,  marketing. 


248    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

4.  Insect  enemies  —  study  of  chief  classes  of  insects,  and 

the  methods  of  combating  them. 

5.  Diseases  —  bacteria  and  other  causes  of  disease  and 

methods  of  prevention  and  control. 

6.  Birds  in  their  economic  relation  to  fruit  grower  and 

farmer. 
B.    Field  work  (in  neighboring  orchards  and  vineyards). 

1.  Pruning  and  treating  wounds. 

2.  Review  of  budding,  grafting,  etc. 

3.  Examination  of  insects  and  fungous  diseases. 

4.  Mixing  sprays  and  spraying. 

5.  Cultivation  and  irrigation. 

6.  Gathering  and  preparing  fruit  for  market. 

II.   Forestry  and  ornamenting  school  and  home  grounds. 

B 
COURSE  IN  HORTICULTURE,  BAKERSFIELD  (CAL.)   HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  following  description  of  the  horticultural  work  in  the  Bakers- 
field,  Cal.,  High  School  is  furnished  by  the  agricultural  instructor, 
Mr.  F.  H.  Tout. 

The  work  as  outlined  follows  closely  Wickson's  "California 
Fruits  and  How  to  Grow  Them." 

Laboratory  experiments  include  the  following :  — 

1.  Preparation  of  grafting  waxes.     (Later  each  student  uses 

his  individual  waxes  for  grafting.) 

2.  Preparation  of  bordeaux  mixture. 

3.  Preparation  of  lime  sulphur  salt. 

4.  Preparation  of  potassium  sulfide  spray. 

5.  Preparation  of  calcium  arsenate. 

6.  Preparation  of  kerosene  emulsion. 
Among  the  practicums  are :  — 

i.  Preparing  cuttings  of  many  different  plants  and  planting 
same  in  garden  plots. 


HORTICULTURE  249 

2.  Grafting  by  all  the  best  methods. 

3.  Budding  by  all  the  important  methods. 

4.  Planting  of  school  farm  orchard. 

The  field  trips  of  1911-1912  included  excursions  to  a  neighboring 
orchard  to  prune  large  peach  trees ;  to  Edison,  Cal.,  to  study  citrus 
culture  in  all  phases ;  to  a  berry  farm  to  study  pruning,  diseases, 
and  care  of  berry  plants. 

C 

COURSE  IN  HORTICULTURE,  GARDENA  (CAL.)  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  Gardena  (Cal.)  High  School  course  in  horticulture  is  de- 
scribed as  follows  by  Mr.  C.  F.  Palmer,  until  July,  1912,  in  charge 
of  the  horticultural  work  of  the  school. 

"  We  use  Wickson's '  California  Fruits'  as  text  and  try  to  actually 
get  practice  in  all  the  main  operations  connected  with  the  raising 
and  care  of  fruit  and  nut  trees,  etc.,  seed  planting  and  care, 
budding,  pruning,  spraying,  grafting,  cultivating,  etc.  Most  of 
our  work  is  out-of-doors  practice  work,  —  not  more  than  one- 
fifth  of  the  time  is  spent  in  text  work. 

"  We  have  spraying  apparatus,  pruning  shears,  saws,  etc.,  an 
orchard  of  over  100  kinds  of  nut  and  fruit  trees,  about  forty  vari- 
eties of  grapes,  many  varieties  of  berries,  nursery,  etc." 

D 

A  year's  course  (36  weeks)  in  horticulture,  including  instruction 
in  pomology,  olericulture,  landscape  gardening,  and  floriculture. 
(Pomology  about  18  weeks,  Olericulture  about  12  weeks,  Land- 
scape Gardening  and  Floriculture  about  6  weeks.)  Outline  pre- 
pared by  the  authors  for  a  California  high  school  in  a  leading 
fruit  production  county. 

A.   GENERAL  INTRODUCTORY  LECTURES 

I.  Definition  of  horticulture.  What  is  included  under  the 
term  "  horticulture,"  —  pomology  or  fruit  growing, 
landscape  gardening,  etc. 


250       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

II.   Pomology.     Kinds  of  fruits:  orchard  or  tree  fruits;  vine 
fruits ;  small  fruits.     Semi-tropical  fruits. 

III.  The  geography  of  fruit  growing.    Determinative  factor  in 

fruit  growing  (climate).  Temperature,  moisture, 
soil,  and  parasites  as  determinant  factors.  (Very 
general  consideration  of  these  topics.)  Fruit- 
growing districts  of  the  United  States. 

IV.  California  as  a  horticultural  state. 

1.  Climate  of  California.     Chief  local  modifications. 
Topographical  and    climatic    divisions    of    California: 

coast,  valley,  mountain,  and  foothill. 

2.  Relation  of  California  climate  to  fruit  growing.     Why 

favorable  to  the  growth  of  fruits. 

3.  Soils  of  California  considered  with  reference  to  fruit 

growing.     Note  soil  survey  maps  and  bulletins. 

4.  History  of  fruit  growing  in  California. 

a.  Native  or  wild  fruits. 

b.  Horticulture  in  the  Mission  and  Spanish  period. 

c.  Development  during  American  occupation.    Intro- 

duction of  new  varieties. 

B.    GENERAL  LECTURES  ON  FRUIT  CULTURE 

The  general  lectures  on  fruit  culture  may  be  preceded,  if  desired, 
and  if  there  is  time,  by  lectures  on  the  choice  of  a  fruit  farm  and 
the  factors  to  be  considered  in  its  selection. 
I.   Preparation  of  the  land  for  fruit. 

1.  Clearing.    Methods,  implements  used,  and  cost. 

2.  Leveling. 

3.  Drainage. 

4.  Tillage. 

5.  Laying  out  for  planting. 

a.  In  squares. 

b.  Quincunx  planting. 

c.  In  equilateral  triangles. 


HORTICULTURE  251 

IT.  Planting  the  trees  in  orchards. 

1.  Digging  holes,  shooting  holes. 

2.  Tree  setters. 

3.  Selecting  trees. 

4.  Time  to  plant. 

5.  Operation  of  planting.     Depth,  etc. 

6.  Cutting  back  when  planting. 

III.  Tillage  of  orchards. 

1.  Purposes. 

2.  Winter  cultivation. 

3.  Summer  cultivation. 

IV.  Fertilization  for  orchards  and  vineyards.     (Treated  in  a 

very  brief  and  general  way.) 

1.  When  necessary. 

2.  What  fertilizers  to  apply.     Brief  discussion  of  various 

kinds  of  fertilizers  and  green  manure  crops. 
V.   Irrigation  of  orchards  and  vineyards. 

1.  Fruit  grown  with  irrigation. 

2.  Fruit  grown  without  irrigation. 

3.  When  to  irrigate. 

4.  Relation  of  rainfall  to  irrigation  and  relation  of  soil  to 

irrigation. 

5.  Relation  of  tillage  to  irrigation. 

6.  Methods  of  irrigation. 

7.  Drainage  and  irrigation. 
VI.   Budding  and  grafting. 

1.  Processes. 

2.  Kinds. 

3.  Materials. 

4.  Stocks. 

5.  Working  over  old  trees. 

6.  Time  for  grafting,  etc. 


252       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

VII.  Pruning. 

1.  Practical  purpose  of  pruning  in  California. 

2.  Form  of  tree  best  suited  to  California  conditions,  and 

how  to  secure  it. 

3.  Time  for  pruning. 

4.  Pruning  bearing  trees. 

5.  Pruning  tools. 

6.  Disposal  of  prunings.    Thinning  fruit. 
VIII.   Nursery  methods  in  California. 

1.  Location  for  nursery. 

2.  Soil  for  nursery. 

3.  Preparation  of  ground. 

4.  Growing  of  nursery  seedlings  of  the  various  fruits. 

5.  Fruit  trees  for  cuttings. 

6.  Planting  out  of  nursery  stock. 

7.  Irrigation. 


Orchard  fruits :  peach,  nectarine,  plums  and  prunes,  apricot,  apple, 

pear,  cherry,  and  quince. 

A  full  sample  outline  is  given  for  the  peach.    Other  fruits  may 
be  studied,  following  similar  outlines. 

THE  PEACH 

I.   Botanical  relations. 
II.  History. 

1.  Original  habitat. 

2.  Geographical  distribution. 

a.  General  throughout  the  world. 

b.  In  the  United  States  and  especially  in  California. 

3.  Brief  history  of  the  development  of  peach  culture  in 

California. 

4.  Peach  crop  of  California.    The  outlook  for  the  peach- 

growing  industry. 


HORTICULTURE  253 

III.  Climate. 

1.  Localities  unsuited  for  successful  peach  culture. 

2.  Localities  best  adapted  for  peach  growing  for  commercial 

purposes. 

3.  Influence  of  different  exposures.1 

IV.  Soil. 

1.  Soil  ingredients  withdrawn  by  peaches. 

2.  Soils  best  adapted  to  peach  growing. 

3.  Peaches  on  various  stocks  as  related  to  soils. 

4.  Improvement  of  soils  for  peach  growing. 
V.   Propagation  of  the  peach. 

1.  Growing  peaches  from  seed. 

2.  Growing  from  cuttings  and  layers. 

3.  Budding  the  peach. 

4.  Grafting  the  peach. 
VI.   Cultural  methods. 

1.  Planting. 

a.  Distances  in  orchard,  number  of  trees  per  acre.    Age 
of  tree  when  planted,  etc. 

2.  Cultivation  of  peach. 

3.  Irrigation  and  drainage. 

4.  Pruning  the  peach. 
Cutting  back  the  peach. 

5.  Working  over  peach  trees. 

6.  Thinning. 

VII.   Harvesting,  preservation,  and  marketing. 

1.  Time  of  harvesting. 

2.  Influence  of  ripening  on  composition. 

3.  Picking,  packing,  and  shipping  fresh  fruit. 

4.  Picking  peaches  for  drying.    Pitting,  peeling,   drying 

and  preparing  for  market. 
VIII.   Varieties. 

1.  Importance  of  variety. 

2.  Varieties  adapted  to  certain  locations. 


254       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

3.  Popular  varieties  in  California. 

4.  Varieties  of  California  origin. 

5.  Market  demands  and  market  varieties. 
DC.   Repressive  agencies. 

1.  Diseases  of  the  peach. 

a.  Kinds. 

(1)  Those  of  parasitic  origin. 

(2)  Those  of  non-parasitic  origin. 

b.  Remedies. 

2.  Animal  enemies,  insects,  etc. 

a.  Kinds. 

b.  Preventive  measures. 
X.   Uses  of  the  peach. 

i.  As  food:  fresh,  dried,  and  canned. 

a.  Food  value.     (Composition.) 

b.  Culinary  usefulness  of  the  peach. 

D.   THE  GRAPE 

I.   Botanical  relations. 
II.   History. 

1.  Antiquity. 

2.  Native  species.    The  European  grape. 

3.  Geographical  distribution. 

a.  General  throughout  the  world. 

b.  Throughout  the  United  States. 

c.  In  California. 

4.  Rise  and  progress  of  the  grape  industry  in  California. 

The   three   chief   divisions   of    California   grape 
culture:    grapes  for  the  table,  for   raisins,  and 
for  wine.     The  grape  crop  of  California. 
III.   Soil. 

1.  Soil  ingredients  removed  by  grapes. 

2.  Soils  for  grape  growing. 


HORTICULTURE  255 

3.  Unfavorable    soils:     with    excess    of    water;     alkali 

soils. 

4.  Improvement  of  soils.     Cover  crops,  etc. 
IV.   Propagation. 

1.  Growing  vines  from  seeds. 

2.  Growing  vines  from  layering. 

3.  Growing  vines   from    cuttings.     Eye   cuttings,  longer 

cuttings. 

a.  Making  and  caring  for  cuttings. 

b.  Rooting  cuttings  in  nursery. 

4.  Budding  and  grafting  the  grape  vine. 

a.  Grafting  the  old  stump. 

b.  Side  grafting. 

c.  Herbaceous  grafting. 

d.  Grafting  on  resistant  roots.    The  cutting  graft. 

e.  Time  of  grafting. 
/.  Care  of  the  scions. 

V.   Cultural  methods :  care  of  vineyard. 

1.  Vineyard  practice. 

a.  Laying  out  the  vineyard. 

b.  Distances  of  planting. 

c.  Number  of  vines  to  the  acre. 

d.  Staking.    Trellises  for  Eastern  grapes. 

e.  Avenues  in  the  vineyard. 

2.  Planting. 

a.  Planting  cuttings  and  rooted  vines. 

b.  Planting  long  cuttings. 

c.  When  to  plant. 

3.  Cultivation  of  vineyard. 

4.  Irrigation. 

5.  Pruning. 

a.  Pruning  tools. 

b.  Time  for  pruning. 

c.  Kinds  of  pruning. 


256   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

d .  The  first  winter  pruning ;  second  year,  third  year,  and 

fourth  year's  pruning. 

e.  Subsequent  pruning. 
/.   The  Chaintre  system. 

g.  Summer  pruning  and  suckering. 
VI.   Repressive  agencies  in  grape  culture. 

1.  Diseases. 

a.  Fungous. 

b.  Physiological. 

2.  Insect  enemies. 

3.  Methods  of  combating  diseases  and  insect  pests. 
VII.   Varieties. 

1.  Foreign  varieties  introduced  into  California. 
Varieties  adapted  to :  — 

a.  Central  coast  valleys. 

b.  Sacramento  Valley  and  foothills. 

c.  San  Joaquin  Valley  and  foothills. 

d.  Southern  California. 

2.  Eastern  varieties  grown  in  California. 

3.  Wine  grapes  grown  in  California. 

4.  Raisin  grapes  grown  in  California. 

VIII.  Harvesting,  packing,  and  shipping  of  fresh  grapes. 

1.  Harvesting. 

a.  Time  of  harvesting. 

b.  Picking. 

(i)  Clippers,  crates,  etc. 

2.  Packing. 

a.  Grading. 

b.  Size  of  packages. 

c.  Trade  marks. 

3.  Shipping. 

a.  Private  trade. 

b.  The  commission  merchant. 

c.  Associations. 

d.  Loading  cars  for  shipment. 


HORTICULTURE  257 

DC.   Raisin  grapes. 

1.  Making  of  raisins. 

a.  Picking.    Time  ascertained  by  color,  taste,  or  sac- 

charometer. 
Methods  of  picking.    Trays. 

b.  Drying. 

c.  The  "sweat  box." 

d.  Sorting  and  grading. 

e.  Equalizing. 
/.   Packing. 

2.  Marketing  raisins. 

a.  Commission  packers. 

b.  Associations. 

E 

Semi-tropical  fruits:  the  olive,  fig,  orange,  pomelo,  lemon,  date, 
and  minor  semi-tropical  fruits  grown  in  California.  Studied 
according  to  outlines  similar  to  those  for  other  orchard  fruits. 

F.   SMALL  FRUITS 

The  blackberry  is  fully  outlined  for  study  as  an  example  of  small 
fruits.  The  loganberry,  raspberry,  strawberry,  and  other  small 
fruits  may  be  studied,  following  similar  outlines. 

THE  BLACKBERRY 
(The  same  outline  may  be  used  for  the  dewberry.) 

I.  Botanical  relations. 
II.  History. 

1.  Distribution    as    a   wild    berry    through    the    United 

States. 

2.  Noted  blackberry  growing  section  of  the  United  States. 
III.   Climate. 

i.  Effect  of  climate  upon  fruiting, 
s 


258       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

IV.    Soil. 

1.  Soil  best  adapted  to  blackberries. 

2.  Improvement  of  blackberry  soils. 

3.  Use  of  fertilizers.     Manures,  etc. 
V.   Propagation. 

1.  By  suckers. 

2.  By  root  cuttings. 
VI.   Cultural  methods. 

1.  Planting.    Time.    Methods. 

2.  Cultivation. 

3.  Mulching. 

4.  Irrigation. 

5.  Pruning. 

6.  Training    and    trellising.     (Necessary    for    dewberries 

especially.) 
VII.   Harvesting  and  marketing. 

1.  Time  to  pick. 

2.  Picking  receptacles. 

3.  Berry  packages. 

4.  Shipping. 

VIII.   Repressive  agencies. 

1.  Animals,  birds,  insects.     (Root  borer,  cane  borer,  etc.) 

2.  Plant  diseases. 

3.  Fungous  diseases. 
IX.   Varieties. 

1.  Most  popular  varieties  in  California. 

2.  New  and  improved  California  varieties. 

G.  NUTS 

Study  in  detail  the  culture  and  marketing  of  nuts  of  local  im- 
portance. 


HORTICULTURE  259 

H.  FRUIT  CANNING,  CRYSTALLIZING,  AND  DRYING 

General  lectures  on  — 

I.  The  canning  industry  in  the  United  States  and  especially 
in  California. 

II.   Crystallized  fruits. 

III.  The  dried  fruit  industry  in  the  United  States,  with  especial 
regard  to  California.  General  discussion  of  trays 
for  drying,  protection  from  rain  or  dew,  drying 
floors,  grading,  cutting  sheds,  sulphuring,  cleaning, 
sweating,  dipping,  and  packing.  Discussion  of 
special  methods  for  various  fruits  may  be  given 
as  the  fruits  are  studied. 

/.  REPRESSIVE  AGENCIES 

General  lectures  on  repressive  agencies  in  fruit  growing  or  drying, 
not  treated  under  the  various  fruits. 

I.  Injurious  insects.  General  discussion  of  ways  and  means 
for  suppression  of  orchard  and  vineyard  pests. 
Disinfecting  nursery  stock. 

II.   Diseases  caused  by  fungi  and  bacteria.    Abnormal  condi- 
tions, causes  not  clear. 

III.  Suppression  of  injurious  animals  and  birds. 

IV.  Protection  from  winds  and  frosts. 

J.  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  FRUIT 

General  lectures.    Omit  all  points  already  treated  under  the 
various  fruits,  —  or  merely  sum  them  up. 
I.   The  fruit  market. 

a.  The  two  markets. 

(1)  Wholesale  —  General. 

(2)  Retail  —  Special. 

b.  Commission  men. 

c.  Selling  associations. 

d.  The  home  market. 


260       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

e.  Considerations  affecting  demand  for  and  prices  of  fruits : 
oversupply,  quality,  season,  acquaintanceship  of 
buyers  with  the  fruit,  supply  of  other  fruits,  also 
price  as  affecting  demand. 

/.   Utilization  of  wastes. 
II.   Picking. 

Time.  Picking  receptacles.  Fruit-picking  tools.  Man- 
aging pickers. 

III.  Sorting  and  grading  of  fruit.    Designation  of  grades,  etc. 

IV.  The  fruit  package. 

a.  Characteristics  of  the  American  fruit  package. 

b.  Standard  packages  for  various  fruits. 

V.  The  cooperative  fruit  marketing  associations  of  California : 
their  character,  objects,  and  conditions  leading 
to  their  organization. 

K.  OLERICULTURE  —  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 
I.   Definitions.     What  is  vegetable  gardening?      The  geog- 
raphy of  vegetable  gardening. 

II.  The  two  classes  of  vegetable  gardening :  growing  for  home 
use  and  growing  for  market. 

III.  Vegetable  gardening  soils.     Soil  improvement.    Tillage. 

IV.  Vegetable  gardening  tools. 

V.   Vegetable  gardening  seeds  and    seed    selection.     Sowing 

of  seeds,  growing  of  seeds. 
VI.   Management  of  the  vegetable  garden.     Transplanting. 

Irrigation.     Double  cropping.    Weeds,  insects,  and  plant 

diseases. 

VII.   Classification  of  the  vegetable  gardening  crops.    Study  of 
the  more  important  vegetable  gardening  crops  of 
the  region  in  which  the  school  is  located. 
VIII.  Marketing  and  storing  vegetables. 

IX.   Garden  work.      Individual  student  garden  work  accom- 
panies the  work  of  this  part  of  the  course. 


HORTICULTURE  261 

L.  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

I.  Study  of  the  elementary  principles  of  landscape  gardening. 
Assigned  problems  in  making  planting  plans  for 
town  lots  and  country  homes. 

II.  Elementary  work  in  floriculture.  Study  of  a  few  common 
flowers ;  planning  of  flower  beds,  window  gardens, 
etc.  Floriculture  in  connection  with  landscape 
gardening  and  home  grounds  improvement. 

PRACTICUMS / 

1 .  Outline  concisely  but  completely  work  in  vegetable 
gardening  which  may  fittingly  be  given  as  a  part  of  a 
year's  course  in  horticulture  in  the  high  school.     State 
time  to  be  given  to  this  work. 

2.  Outline,  day  by  day,  two  weeks'  instruction  cover- 
ing any  chosen  phase  of  a  year's  work  in  horticulture  for 
the  high  school.     Summarize  lectures,  note  reading  or 
other  assignments,  and  give  full  directions  for  labora- 
tory work  or  other  practicums  which  are  to  be  under- 
taken in  connection  with  the  instruction. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

Course  in  Agriculture  for  the  High  Schools  of  Michigan,  Michigan 

Agricultural  College,  Department  of  Agricultural  Education, 

Bui.  7.     1911.    pp.  29-37.  ; 

PALMER,  C.  F.    Elementary  Horticulture  for  California  Schools. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  Normal  School  Bulletin.     1910. 
WATTS,  R.  L.    Field  Laboratory  Work  accompanying   College 

Courses  in  Horticulture.     National  Education  Association. 

Proceedings.     1910.    pp.  1082-1087. 


CHAPTER  XI 

FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE  :   FARM  MECHANICS  AND  FARM 
BUILDINGS  J    FARM  MANAGEMENT 

IT  is  assumed  that  during  the  first  three  years  of  the 
high  school  agricultural  course  opportunity  is  given 
students  to  acquire  a  good  basic  knowledge  of  farm  plants 
and  animals  and  their  production.  They  may  also  gain 
an  understanding  of  the  carrying  on  of  one  or  more 
farm  industries,  such  as  dairying.  That  is,  the  studies  of 
these  years  deal  very  largely  with  the  basic  principles 
of  farming,  and  with  farm  practice.  The  agricultural 
studies  of  the  last  high  school  year  are  more  concerned 
with  the  proper  equipping  of  a  farm  and  with  the  carry- 
ing on  of  farming  as  a  business;  that  is,  the  work  is 
divided  between  two  phases  of  work,  that  dealing  with 
rural  engineering,  farm  mechanics,  or  farm  equipment, 
and  that  dealing  with  the  economic  problems  of  farming. 

During  the  year  students  should  be  given  an  oppor- 
tunity to  learn  as  much  as  possible  of  the  machinery 
which  is  used  in  the  care  and  production  of  plants  and 
animals  and  in  doing  the  work  of  the  farm,  and  of  the 
relation  between  efficiency  in  tools  and  machines  and  the 
yields  and  profits  of  a  farm.  They  should  study  the 

262 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          263 

planning,  grouping,  and  construction  of  farm  buildings 
in  the  most  efficient,  sanitary,  convenient,  and  economical 
way.  They  should  study  the  general  management  of 
the  farm,  its  layout,  equipment  for  different  kinds  of 
farming,  systems  of  farming,  the  keeping  of  records  and 
accounts,  and  all  those  things  which  make  for  efficiency 
in  conducting  farm  operations  as  a  business.  During 
the  last  year  there  should  be,  too,  some  consideration  of 
the  social  as  well  as  economic  problems  of  rural  life  and  of 
means  for  their  solution. 

In  order,  the  study  of  the  rural  engineering  topics 
selected  should  precede  that  of  the  rural  economics 
problems,  —  the  first  half  of  the  year  being  given  to 
rural  engineering,  while  the  last  half  is  given  to  rural 
economics.  This  is  because  an  understanding  of  the 
fundamental  problems  of  rural  economics  necessitates  a 
previous  study  and  understanding  of  both  farm  practice 
and  farm  equipment.  To  manage  a  farm  in  the  most  ef- 
ficient way,  the  farmer  must  have  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  equipment  as  well  as  of  methods  of  raising  crops  and 
live  stock. 

The  materials  of  both  rural  engineering  and  rural 
economics  are  widely  varied.  Each  includes  a  vast 
number  of  topics,  and  each  is  known  to  agricultural 
teachers  under  several  names,  as  rural  economy,  agri- 
cultural economics,  agricultural  engineering,  farm  eco- 
nomics, and  farm  organization. 


264       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

Where,  a  few  years  ago,  the  agricultural  colleges  were 
content  with  offering  a  single  course  along  each  line, 
they  are  now  giving  a  number  of  courses,  the  nomencla- 
ture and  materials  of  which  vary  widely.  Names  ap- 
plied to  but  a  single  division  of  the  subject  in  one  school 
are  in  another  school  applied  to  an  entire  group  of  studies. 
Farm  management,  for  example,  though  now  considered 
by  the  majority  of  agricultural  teachers  to  include, 
properly,  but  a  single  phase  of  the  problems  of  rural 
economics,  is  in  some  schools  made  to  include  all  those 
studies  which  are  elsewhere  grouped  under  the  general 
term  of  rural  economics.  While  in  one  school  farm 
mechanics  may  mean  only  a  study  of  farm  machinery  and 
its  care  and  repair,  in  another  school  the  term  may  be 
made  to  include  not  only  the  study  of  farm  machinery 
and  farm  power,  but  also  of  blacksmithing,  carpentry, 
farm  architecture,  and  even  of  drainage,  irrigation,  and 
road  construction.  There  is,  therefore,  much  confusion 
in  understanding  of  the  names  applied  to  these  studies 
and  great  diversity  as  to  the  materials  included  in  each 
in  the  different  schools  and  colleges. 

While  in  the  high  schools  only  the  more  elementary 
principles  and  basic  topics  of  each  line  of  study  can  possi- 
bly be  taken  up  and  covered,  yet  here,  as  in  the  colleges 
and  special  agricultural  schools,  there  is  a  wide  diversity 
in  the  topics  chosen  for  study  and  in  the  names  given  to 
the  courses.  In  some  high  schools  all  the  rural  engineer- 


FOURTH   YEAR   AGRICULTURE  265 

ing  topics  selected  for  study  are  given  under  the  name 
farm  equipment,  in  others  as  farm  mechanics,  or  farm 
machinery.  In  other  schools  this  work  is  split  up  into 
separate  courses  in  farm  machinery,  farm  carpentry, 
farm  power,  and  farm  buildings.  In  a  similar  fashion, 
while  the  study  of  the  rural  economics  topics  chosen  is  in 
one  school  called  farm  management,  in  another  it  may  be 
called  farm  relations  and  farm  management,  or  agricul- 
tural economics ;  or  the  work  may  be  split  up  into  special 
courses  in  farm  accounts,  farm  management,  etc.  In 
still  other  schools  the  name  farm  management  is  made  to 
include  all  the  topics  taught  during  the  last  year,  in  both 
rural  engineering  and  rural  economics.  In  fact,  this 
last  is  a  very  popular  nomenclature,  though  it  is  con- 
trary to  the  understanding  of  the  term  farm  management 
which  is  now  being  urged  by  agriculturists. 

In  the  materials  chosen  for  study  in  the  high  school 
from  each  of  these  two  great  fields  there  is  a  diversity  as 
wide  in  different  schools  as  the  diversity  in  the  names  of 
the  courses;  and  only  too  frequently  the  materials  are 
but  poorly  related  to  the  name.  Indeed,  there  may  be 
said  to  be  almost  no  uniformity  in  materials  and  no 
general  understanding  of  just  what  work  should  be 
included  in  high  school  instruction  along  either  line. 
There  are  almost  as  many  different  outlines  of  work  used 
as  there  are  schools  attempting  the  work.  And,  in  the 
same  school,  the  outlines  followed  change  with  every 


266       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

change  of  teacher  and  even  from  year  to  year  with  the 
same  teacher,  for  very  vague  reasons.  The  course 
should,  everywhere,  be  more  or  less  elastic,  to  be  sure ; 
but  there  should  not  be  such  radical  differences  in  the 
work  presented  as  at  present  exist. 

Greater  definiteness  in  the  general  outlines  of  the  work 
covered  is  a  crying  need,  as  is  also  a  better  adaptation  of 
the  subject  matter  chosen  to  high  school  work  and  of 
the  names  of  the  courses  to  the  subject  matter.  There 
should  be  a  more  earnest  endeavor  to  determine  the 
real  educational  and  practical  value  of  materials  in  each 
line  of  work  and  to  choose  the  essential  principles  and 
facts  for  presentation  to  high  school  pupils. 

In  rural  engineering  the  essential  subjects  seem,  for 
high  school  students,  to  be  farm  machinery,  farm  power, 
and  farm  architecture.  Farm  drainage  and  irrigation 
are  rural  engineering  topics,  but  have  already  been  con- 
sidered more  or  less  in  first  year  agriculture  and  in  con- 
nection with  the  production  of  different  crops.  Time  is 
limited,  and  they  must  therefore  for  the  most  part  be 
omitted  from  the  fourth  year  work,  though  they  will  be 
considered  more  or  less  in  farm  management  in  planning 
the  outlay  of  farms.  Those  phases  of  the  study  of  rural 
roads  belonging  to  the  rural  engineering  work  must  also 
be  somewhat  slighted,  because  of  the  short  time  available 
for  the  work.  Yet  some  time  should  be  given  to  lectures 
and  reading  assignments  on  road  construction.  In  addi- 


FOURTH   YEAR   AGRICULTURE  267 

tion,  roads  will  be  considered  from  another  viewpoint, 
—  that  of  their  effect  on  marketing  and  on  the  value  of 
property,  —  in  the  farm  management  or  rural  economics 
work. 

As  to  the  naming  of  the  course,  while  all  the  work  of 
the  first  semester  comes,  as  has  been  said,  under  the  gen- 
eral term  of  rural  engineering,  yet  this  seems  too  preten- 
tious a  term  for  high  school  use.  Farm  mechanics  seems 
for  this  reason  to  be  a  better  nomenclature.  Yet  many 
object  to  this,  saying  that  it  is  not  commonly  understood 
to  include  the  subject  of  farm  buildings,  —  which  is  an 
important  phase  of  this  work  in  high  school.  It  is  there- 
fore suggested  that  the  work  of  the  first  semester  be 
called  farm  mechanics  and  farm  buildings,  or  farm 
mechanics,  including  farm  buildings,  for  the  sake  of 
clearness,  definiteness,  and  simplicity. 

In  the  rural  economics  work  of  the  last  semester, 
nomenclature  and  materials  differ  as  widely  as  in  the 
rural  engineering  work,  as  has  been  indicated.  In  some 
schools  different  materials  are  studied  under  the  same 
name;  in  other  schools  practically  the  same  topics 
are  studied,  but  under  different  names.  Here,  too,  we 
need  greater  definiteness  and  uniformity. 

In  this  connection  the  1911  report  of  the  Committee 
on  Instruction  in  Agriculture,  of  the  Association  of 
American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations, 
which  deals  largely  with  the  nomenclature  of  the  subjects 


268       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

grouped  under  rural  economics,  is  interesting.  After 
referring  to  the  1896  report  of  the  Committee,  in  which 
the  general  policy  of  farm  management,  rural  law, 
agricultural  bookkeeping,  and  all  topics  related  to  the 
economics  of  agriculture  are  grouped  under  the  general 
heading  of  rural  economy  or  farm  management,  the  re- 
port goes  on  to  state  that  there  should  be  a  clearer  under- 
standing of  the  meaning  of  these  terms  and  their  rela- 
tions to  each  other.  While  fifteen  years  ago  the  terms 
were  synonymously  used,  the  general  consensus  of  opin- 
ion among  agricultural  educators  of  to-day  is  that 
this  is  incorrect.  While  it  is  considered  that  the  name 
rural  economics  is  applicable  to  the  entire  field  of  eco- 
nomics in  its  relation  to  agriculture  and  rural  communities, 
it  is  thought  that  the  term  farm  management  should  be 
restricted  to  that  phase  of  rural  economics  which  deals 
with  the  business  organization  and  direction  of  individual 
farm  enterprises. 

According  to  the  opinion  of  President  Butterfield,  of 
the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  accepted  by  the 
American  Farm  Management  Association,  the  entire 
subject  of  rural  economics  is  properly  divided  into  three 
phases :  — 

"The  business  aspect;  farm  administration  or  farm 
management.  How  can  the  individual  farmer  so  or- 
ganize the  factors  of  production,  —  land,  labor,  and 
capital,  —  on  his  farm,  so  adapt  farm  practice  to  his 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          269 

particular  environments,  and  so  dispose  of  his  produce  as 
to  yield  him  the  largest  net  return,  while  still  maintain- 
ing the  integrity  of  his  land  and  equipment  ? 

"  The  industrial  aspect ;  agricultural  economics.  How 
can  the  farmers  as  a  class  secure  the  largest  financial 
success,  while  giving  to  the  consumers  an  adequate  food 
supply  and  maintaining  the  soil  resources  ?  How  adjust 
systems  of  land  tenure,  means  of  transportation,  methods 
of  marketing,  systems  of  taxation,  institutions  of  credit, 
and  protective  and  stimulating  legislation  to  the  legiti- 
mate needs  of  the  farming  class  ? 

"  The  community  aspect ;  rural  sociology.  How  can 
the  people  who  farm  best  utilize  their  industrial  and  social 
environment  in  the  development  of  personal  character, 
best  cooperate  for  their  common  welfare,  minister  to  the 
continued  improvement  of  the  common  or  community 
life?  How  best  organize  the  personal  and  community 
resources  of  the  rural  people  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
tributing most  fully  to  national  welfare  ?" 1 

Director  L.  H.  Bailey,  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of 
Cornell  University,  says  that  his  idea  is  that  "Farm 
management  has  to  do  with  the  business  organization 
and  direction  of  the  farm ;  rural  economics  .  .  .  has  to 
do  with  the  relation  of  the  farm  to  the  community." 

Dean  Price,  of  Ohio  State  University,  states  that  in  his 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Instruction  in  Agriculture,  1911. 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Cir.  115,  pp.  4-5. 


270   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

classification  he  has  used  rural  economics  as  a  generic 
term  including  farm  management,  agricultural  economics, 
rural  sociology,  and  comparative  and  historical  agriculture. 
"  Between  agricultural  economics  and  farm  management 
I  have  made  the  distinction  that  farm  management  is  a 
study  of  the  economics  of  agriculture  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  individual,  and  that  agricultural  economics 
is  a  study  of  the  industry  in  its  relation  to  other  industries 
from  the  standpoint  of  society  as  a  whole.  .  .  .  While 
it  will  be  necessary  to  separate  farm  management  from 
agricultural  economics  as  the  work  is  developed,  it  seems 
to  me  that  they  are  both  closely  related  and  that  rural 
economy  can  well  be  used  as  a  generic  term  to  include 
both  of  them." 

Professor  F.  D.  Gardner,  of  the  Pennsylvania  State 
College,  says:  "To  my  mind,  farm  management  deals 
with  the  farm  as  a  unit,  while  rural  economy  deals  with 
the  aspects  of  the  farm  and  the  farmer  which  have  a 
community  interest  and  which  affect  a  community  as  a 
whole. 

"  Farm  management  should  be  based  on  the  subjects 
of  agronomy,  horticulture,  animal  husbandry,  dairy 
husbandry,  agricultural  engineering,  and  the  sciences 
and  practices  that  underlie  these  subjects.  As  taught 
to  the  student,  it  should  follow  and  be  based  on  his  knowl- 
edge of  these  subjects.  It  is  the  culmination  of  his 
technical  studies  in  agriculture,  bringing  them  together 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          271 

and  applying  them  to  the  problems  of  the  farm  and  its 
administration.  .  .  . 

"  Farm  management  deals  with  the  administration  of 
the  farm  as  a  unit  so  as  to  produce  the  maximum  profit 
from  land,  labor,  capital,  goods,  and  managerial  activity 
at  hand.  It  deals  with  the  layout  of  the  farm,  with  the 
extent  and  general  character  of  improvements  and  build- 
ings, but  leaves  the  survey  of  the  farm  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  buildings  to  agricultural  engineering.  It 
considers  the  rotation  of  crops  in  relation  to  the  main- 
tenance of  soil  fertility,  the  acreage  of  crops  in  relation 
to  the  economical  use  of  labor  and  equipment.  It  con- 
siders the  number  of  the  various  classes  of  animals  that 
can  best  be  maintained  and  whether  concentrates  shall 
be  grown  on  the  farm  or  whether  they  may  be  most 
economically  purchased  from  outside  sources. 

"  How  to  operate  and  care  for  farm  machinery  belongs 
to  the  field  of  agricultural  engineering,  but  the  duties  of 
machinery,  how  many  machines  of  various  kinds  will  be 
required,  or  whether  the  farmer  should  own  a  self-binder 
or  should  rent  one,  are  problems  belonging  to  farm  man- 
agement. Land  rentals,  relation  of  landlord  to  tenant, 
forms  of  leases,  the  employment  of  labor,  its  manage- 
ment, responsibility,  and  liabilities,  are  problems  of  farm 
management. 

"  Farm  management  also  deals  with  markets  and  mar- 
keting, with  transportation  facilities,  and  with  cooperation. 


272       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

These,  however,  may  go  so  far  as  to  become  community 
enterprises  and  be  equally  as  much  the  problems  of  rural 
economics.  Legal  forms,  farm  records,  and  farm  ac- 
counts also  belong  to  the  field  of  farm  management. 

"The  line  of  cleavage  separating  farm  management 
from  rural  economics  may  not  be  sharply  defined.  The 
line  inclosing  and  separating  one  from  the  other  will  be  a 
series  of  projections  and  recessions  dovetailing  together 
as  the  cogs  of  one  pinion  dovetail  with  those  of  its  com- 
panion." 

The  general  opinion,  then,  seems  to  be  that  the  name 
rural  economics  should  properly  be  given  to  the  entire 
group  of  studies  which  deals  with  economic  problems  in 
agriculture  as  distinguished  from  the  farm  practice  sub- 
jects and  rural  engineering ;  and  that  under  that  general 
name  comes  farm  management,  the  study  of  rural  soci- 
ology, and  related  topics. 

In  a  brief  high  school  course  it  is  evident  that  but  a 
few  of  the  topics  classed  under  rural  economics  can  be 
studied.  Yet  it  is  equally  evident  that  these  should 
not  be  confined  within  too  narrow  limits,  but  should 
include  some  consideration  of  rural  social  problems  and 
the  relation  of  farming  communities  and  the  state  as 
well  as  a  study  of  the  business  administration  of  in- 
dividual farms.  For  these  reasons  it  might  perhaps  be 
well  to  choose  the  broad  term  rural  economics  for  the 
work.  However,  this  seems,  as  does  rural  engineering, 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          273 

a  somewhat  pretentious  term  for  the  kind  of  work  which 
can  be  given  in  the  high  school ;  and,  too,  the  work  will, 
obviously,  not  be  evenly  balanced  along  all  these  lines. 
For  the  high  school  student,  in  the  brief  time  at  command, 
the  problems  of  the  farm  as  a  unit  must  be  emphasized, 
rather  than  those  of  the  community.  Instruction 
must  be  practical,  rather  than  theoretical.  Only  the 
more  immediate  and  pressing  economic  and  social  prob- 
lems of  the  community  as  a  whole  can  be  taken  up. 
For  this  reason  it  is  argued  by  some  that  the  name  farm 
management  should  be  given  to  the  work  in  the  high 
school,  since  it  is  the  business  aspect  in  the  administra- 
tion of  a  single  farm  that  is  emphasized ;  and  this  is  the 
name  that  is  most  used.  Whether  it  will  continue  to  be 
used,  or  will  be  discarded  for  the  more  general  term,  the 
future  must  tell. 

The  farm  mechanics  and  farm  buildings  work  of  the 
first  semester  of  the  fourth  year  may  well  be  divided 
about  evenly  between  the  two  subjects.  Each  should 
provide  for  a  large  amount  of  practice  work  and  for  that 
reason  should  be  assigned  two  periods  daily  for  the  time 
given.  Of  this  time  one  day  per  week  will  probably 
prove  sufficient  for  the  lecture  and  recitation  work,  the 
rest  of  the  time  being  divided  among  indoor  laboratory, 
shop,  and  outdoor  work  as  needed.  The  recitation  time 
may,  if  desired,  be  divided,  —  one  period  being  used  say 
Tuesdays  and  another  Thursdays  for  lecture  and  reci- 

T 


274       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

tations,  —  instead  of  having  a  double  recitation  period 
one  day  per  week. 

In  farm  mechanics  the  student  should  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  the  tools  and  machinery  that  are  used  upon 
the  ordinary  farm  or  sold  by  local  dealers,  —  their  kinds, 
uses,  special  adaptations,  cost,  housing,  and  care.  Many 
of  these  machines  and  tools  will  already  have  been  used 
and  studied  more  or  less  in  connection  with  the  work  in 
preceding  courses;  but  only  as  aids  in  production.  In 
this  course  they  are  studied  from  a  somewhat  different 
standpoint,  and  their  construction,  efficiency,  cost,  care, 
and  housing  are  emphasized.  Though  the  previous  study 
of  machines  and  implements  has  been  largely  incidental, 
the  knowledge  of  the  kinds,  uses,  and  special  adaptations 
thus  acquired  will  be  found  to  be  of  great  advantage  here, 
materially  shortening  the  time  which  it  is  necessary  to 
give  to  the  different  implements  and  machines  in  this 
course. 

Following  the  study  of  farm  tools  and  machines,  some 
time  must  be  given  to  the  study  of  the  sources  of  farm 
power,  the  advantages  and  disadvantages,  efficiency, 
cost,  and  special  uses  of  each.  Particular  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  gasoline  engine  because  of  its 
growing  importance  as  a  source  of  farm  power  and  the 
multitude  of  ways  in  which  it  can  be  utilized.  Students 
should  have  practice  in  running  and  caring  for  gasoline 
engines.  Common  gasoline  engine  troubles  should  be 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          275 

called  to  their  attention  and  means  of  remedying  them 
learned. 

The  subjects  of  farm  drainage  and  irrigation  have 
been  studied  in  an  elementary  way  during  the  second 
semester  of  the  first  high  school  year,  if  the  outline  sug- 
gested in  Chapter  VI  is  followed.  The  same  subjects 
also  come  up  in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  cul- 
ture of  various  crops.  Students  are  therefore  supposed 
to  have  a  certain  familiarity  with  leveling  and  survey- 
ing instruments  by  this  time,  and  with  basic  facts  as  to 
farm  drainage  and  irrigation.  But  it  is  also  extremely 
desirable  that  this  knowledge  be  increased  during  the 
fourth  high  school  year,  and  that  some  practice  in  farm 
surveying  and  in  the  use  of  leveling  instruments  be 
given. 

If  possible,  the  farm  mechanics  work  should  also 
include  very  elementary  instruction  in  blacksmithing, 
horseshoeing,  and  the  like.  The  student  should  learn  to 
construct  or  repair  simple  parts  of  machines  and  im- 
plements used  on  the  farm  and  to  make  simple  farm 
appliances.  Many  farm  appliances  should,  however, 
have  already  been  made  by  students  if  they  have  had 
a  previous  special  course  in  manual  training,  in  that 
course. 

It  should  be  said  here  that  it  is  desirable,  if  not  impera- 
tive, that  students  should  have  as  a  preliminary  to  this 
work  some  instruction  in  manual  training  (including 


276   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

wood  shop  and  forge)  and  in  mechanical  drawing.  One 
semester  of  each  would  doubtless  prove  an  excellent 
basis  for  the  work  in  both  farm  mechanics  and  farm 
buildings,  though  more  would  of  course  be  advantageous. 
Where  it  is  not  possible  to  give  such  preparatory  work, 
elementary  instruction  along  these  lines  must  accompany 
the  special  work  in  farm  mechanics  and  farm  buildings. 

In  farm  buildings  the  location,  planning,  grouping,  and 
construction  of  the  farm  house,  barns,  and  other  out- 
buildings should  be  studied,  as  also  the  farm  water  supply, 
the  sewage  disposal  system,  and  the  lighting  of  farm 
buildings.  Materials  used  in  construction  —  as  wood, 
stone,  brick,  and  concrete  —  should  be  studied  and  com- 
pared. The  cost  of  materials  and  of  labor  for  the  build- 
ing of  given  structures  should  be  estimated. 

In  this  course,  too,  farm  fences  should  be  studied,  as  to 
the  different  purposes  for  which  used,  materials  and 
construction,  cost  and  efficiency. 

There  is  no  textbook  really  suitable  for  high  school 
work  in  farm  mechanics,  though  Davidson  and  Chase's 
"Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors"  covers  one  phase 
of  the  subject  admirably.  However,  it  includes  far  too 
much  material  for  use  in  a  brief  course  such  as  that 
described.  Furthermore,  it  does  not  provide  for  any 
practicum  work,  which  should  form  so  important  a 
part  of  the  farm  mechanics  work  in  the  high  school. 
There  should,  however,  be  several  copies  of  the  book  in 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          277 

the  library,  and  students  should  be  referred  to  it  fre- 
quently. King's  " Physics  of  Agriculture"  will  also 
be  much  used  in  this  work,  and  it  may  be  well  for 
members  of  the  class  to  purchase  either  this  or  David- 
son and  Chase. 

For  the  work  in  mechanical  drawing,  where  this  is  not 
taught  separately,  such  texts  as  Anthony's  "Elements  of 
Mechanical  Drawing"  or  Tracy's  " Introductory  Course 
in  Mechanical  Drawing  "  will  be  found  helpful. 

Members  of  the  class  should  also  secure  some  of  the 
more  important  of  the  numerous  government  bulletins 
on  farm  machinery,  and  parts  of  them  should  be  studied 
by  the  class.  Among  these  the  following  farmers' 
bulletins  may  well  be  included:  No.  95,  "Good  Roads 
for  Farmers";  No.  136,  "Earth  Roads";  No.  179, 
"Horseshoeing";  No.  277,  "The  Use  of  Alcohol  and 
Gasoline  in  Farm  Engines";  No.  303,  "Corn-harvest- 
ing Machinery";  No.  321,  "The  Use  of  the  Split-log 
Drag  on  Earth  Roads";  No.  338,  "Macadam  Roads"; 
No.  347,  "  The  Repair  of  Farm  Equipment " ;  No.  403, 
"  The  Construction  of  Concrete  Fence  Posts  " ;  and  No. 
505,  "  Benefits  of  Improved  Roads."  In  addition,  num- 
erous state  experiment  station  publications  on  farm  ma- 
chinery will  be  found  helpful. 

Lectures  and  reading  assignments  should  cover  the 
various  classes  of  farm  machinery  and  farm  motors, 
the  more  important  kinds  of  each  class,  and  their  cost, 


278       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN  AGRICULTURE 

efficiency,  care,  and  repair.  They  should  also  include 
something  as  to  the  value  of  good  farm  roads  and  bridges, 
their  kinds  and  construction. 

In  farm  buildings  a  text  may  or  may  not  be  used.  It 
will  probably  be  well,  however,  to  have  students  pur- 
chase some  one  book,  such  as  Roberts'  "  Farmstead," 
Powell's  "Farm  Plans  and  Buildings,"  or  the  book  on 
"Farm  Buildings"  published  by  the  Sanders  Publishing 
Company. 

In  addition,  there  are  many  valuable  government  and 
state  bulletins  on  the  planning  and  construction  of  all 
kinds  of  farm  buildings,  to  suit  different  conditions. 
These  should  not  only  be  secured  for  the  library,  but 
students  should  be  encouraged  to  collect  as  many  of 
them  as  possible  for  their  own  reference  and  use. 

The  lectures  may  well  summarize  for  pupils  the  es- 
sential factors  to  be  considered  in  the  location  of  farm 
buildings  and  in  the  planning  and  construction  of  the 
different  buildings  needed  on  the  farm. 

As  practicum  work  in  farm  mechanics  there  should  be 
trips  to  farms  of  the  community  to  note  the  different 
kinds  of  implements  and  machines  used  on  local  farms 
and  to  observe  methods  of  storing  and  caring  for  them.. 
Agricultural  implement  houses  should  be  visited  and  the 
stock  and  prices  studied.  Any  implement  new  to  the 
community  should  be  studied  in  the  field  and  on  the 
farms  of  users. 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          279 

There  should  be  practice  in  setting  up  farm  ma- 
chinery. In  connection  with  this  phase  of  the  work 
it  may  be  possible  to  arrange  with  local  dealers  so 
that  the  class  may  see  various  implements  unpacked 
from  shipping  cases  and  set  up  and  adjusted  for 
field  use.  They  may  even  be  allowed  to  take  part 
in  this  work. 

In  the  manual  training  work  which  should  precede  the 
work  of  this  year  students  should  have  made  many  use- 
ful farm  devices  and  appliances,  such  as  corn-testing 
trays,  chicken  coops,  butter-workers,  feed  boxes  and 
troughs,  models  of  bins  for  grains,  milking  stools,  miter 
boxes,  sawhorse,  stable  floor  scraper,  models  of  stanchions 
and  ties,  handles  for  tools,  and  so  on.  If  there  has  been 
an  opportunity  to  do  any  forge  work,  they  should  have 
had  some  practice  in  making  chain  links,  drilling  iron, 
and  other  simple  problems. 

If  they  have  not  had  such  work,  as  much  time  as  can 
be  spared  must  be  given  to  it  in  connection  with  the 
special  course  in  farm  mechanics,  and  as  a  part  of  the 
practicum  work  in  the  courses  dealing  with  the  materials 
in  connection  with  which  these  appliances  are  used. 
For  example,  where  a  considerable  number  of  farm  ap- 
pliances are  not  made  in  a  manual  training  course,  re- 
quired for  agricultural  students,  various  poultry  appli- 
ances should  be  made  in  connection  with  the  poultry 
work,  dairy  appliances  in  the  dairy  course,  handy  de- 


280       MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

vices  used  in  connection  with  the  care  of  live  stock  in  the 
live  stock  course,  and  so  on. 

In  any  event,  there  should  be  on  the  school  farm,  if 
possible,  a  simple  model  farm  shop,  equipped  with  a 
bench,  forge  riveting  hammers,  rivets,  nippers,  staples, 
awls,  punches  of  different  sizes,  jack  plane,  smoothing 
plane,  ripsaw,  crosscut  saw,  and  other  tools  and  mate- 
rials needed  in  making  simple  repairs  upon  harness, 
machinery,  and  other  farm  equipment. 

Here  students  should  have  practice  in  well-planned 
practical  work.  This  should  include  any  needed  repairs 
in  the  school  farm  harness,  tools  and  machines,  and 
repairs  of  harness,  implements,  etc.,  brought  in  by 
students  or  farmers  from  their  homes.  The  work  done 
by  students  should  not  be  indiscriminately  selected  and 
assigned  by  the  instructor,  however,  but  should,  so  far 
as  is  possible,  give  to  each  student  practice  in  making  a 
variety  of  useful  repairs  commonly  needed.  The  aim 
should  be  to  have  each  exercise  have  both  educative  and 
practical  value.  In  cases  where  no  harness  or  implements 
available  need  the  particular  kind  of  repairs  which  it  is 
desired  to  illustrate,  " sample"  repairs  may  be  made  with 
worn-out  harness,  scraps  of  leather,  wood,  or  parts  of  old 
machines. 

Students  should  have  practice  either  in  this  course  or  in 
a  previous  manual  training  course  in  drawing  out  round 
and  square  iron,  in  welding  round  and  flat  iron,  forging 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          281 

chain  links  and  hooks,  drilling  cast  and  wrought  iron  and 
steel.  The  entire  class  should  have  practice  in  soldering, 
and,  if  possible,  in  setting  up  and  babbitting  a  shaft. 
It  is  also  desirable,  if  there  is  time,  that  some  opportunity 
be  given  for  elective  work,  such  as  making  a  butcher's 
knife  or  a  saw  set  out  of  an  old  file,  making  a  riveting 
hammer,  chain  hook,  or  other  tools  or  construction 
needed  upon  the  farm. 

In  addition  to  the  individual  exercises  performed  by 
members  of  the  farm  mechanics  class,  certain  demonstra- 
tion exercises  will  be  found  very  profitable.  In  the 
demonstration  work  the  instructor  should  not  hesitate 
to  secure  assistance  where  possible  from  well-informed 
practical  mechanics  and  farmers,  or  from  the  manual 
training  teacher  of  the  school.  He  himself  is  supposed 
to  know  more  of  the  science  and  literature  of  his  subject 
than  others  in  the  community  and  should  himself  give 
demonstrations  of  numbers  of  exercises.  There  is, 
however,  a  distinct  advantage  in  having  some  demonstra- 
tion exercises  performed  by  local  experts.  For  example, 
a  good  local  blacksmith  may  be  induced  to  make,  in 
the  school  shop,  several  of  the  ordinary  simple  farm  tools, 
such  as  are  described  in  Cobleigh's  "  Handy  Farm  De- 
vices," Holmstrom's  " Modern  Blacksmi thing,"  and 
similar  books. 

Visits  should  be  made  to  local  blacksmith  shops  to 
observe  the  work  of  good  horseshoers  and  to  note  methods 


282    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

of  doing  various  other  kinds  of  work.  Even  when  the 
work  is  of  such  a  character  that  students  do  not  expect  to 
do  it  themselves,  they  should  observe  and  become  famil- 
iar with  proper  methods  of  making  or  repairing  different 
farm  tools  and  implements.  They  should  understand 
the  best  methods  in  horseshoeing,  even  though  they  may 
never  expect  to  shoe  a  horse  themselves.  It  should, 
however,  be  impressed  upon  students  that  the  more 
simple  construction  and  repairs  needed  upon  the  farm 
should  be  actually  done  there,  by  the  farm  workers, 
wherever  feasible,  as  a  matter  of  economy,  rather  than 
taken  to  the  town  shops  to  be  done.  Days  of  inclement 
weather  may  be  used  to  most  profitable  advantage  in 
just  such  work.  The  loss  in  farm  labor  employed  by  the 
month  or  year  will  thus  be  greatly  lessened,  useful  and 
pleasant  occupation  afforded  mechanically  inclined  boys 
of  the  family,  and  money  will  be  saved. 

In  arranging  the  practical  work  in  farm  mechanics, 
suggestions  may  be  obtained  from  many  publications. 
Among  them,  the  New  York  State  Education  Depart- 
ment "Syllabus  for  Farm  Mechanics  and  Drawing  in 
Secondary  Schools"  should  not  be  neglected;  as  also 
Michigan  Agricultural  College  Department  of  Agricul- 
tural Education,  Bulletin  No.  7,  "  A  Course  in  Agriculture 
for  the  High  Schools  of  Michigan" ;  the  Maine  Depart- 
ment of  Education  "  Course  in  Agriculture  for  High 
School " ;  and  the  Illinois  Agricultural  College  Exten- 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE         283 

'sion  Bulletin  on  "How  to  run  Farm  Machinery."  Sug- 
gestions may  also  be  obtained  from  lists  of  exercises  at 
the  end  of  chapters  on  farm  machinery  in  many  of  the 
general  textbooks  on  agriculture. 

Agricultural  teachers  in  New  York  State  high  schools 
can  secure  sets  of  copies  of  mimeographed  directions  for 
several  valuable  farm  mechanics  exercises  arranged  for 
Cornell  University  students.  Many  of  these  are  ex- 
cellent for  high  school  use  as  well,  and  it  is  possible  that 
agricultural  teachers  outside  of  the  state  might  also 
secure  them. 

In  farm  buildings  the  practicum  work  should  include 
practice  in  reading  tracings  and  blueprints  of  farm  build- 
ings rapidly,  in  criticizing  plans  intelligently,  and  later 
in  the  drawing  of  original  plans  and  making  blueprints 
from  them.  There  should  also  be,  accompanying  the 
drawing  of  some  of  the  original  plans,  the  making  of  lists 
of  needed  materials,  with  estimates  of  cost  of  same,  and 
specifications  as  to  construction.  Lastly,  some  actual 
construction  work  should  be  done  by  students,  either  in 
the  making  of  frames  for  small  model  buildings  or  in 
work  on  buildings  on  the  school  grounds,  or,  preferably, 
both.  In  this  course,  too,  models  of  different  kinds  of 
farm  fences  and  gates  should  be  made,  or  actual  fence- 
building  work  may  be  done  on  the  school  farm. 

In  some  schools  practically  all  the  small  buildings 
needed  in  the  agricultural  work  are  put  up  by  agricul- 


284         MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

tural  or  manual  training  students.  At  the  Gardena, 
California,  high  school  not  only  are  small  buildings,  such 
as  lath-houses,  put  up  entirely  by  students  in  farm 
mechanics  and  farm  buildings  classes,  but  when  larger 
buildings,  such  as  barns,  are  to  be  built,  the  school  board 
furnishes  one  carpenter  to  each  squad  of  four  or  five  boys, 
and  the  boys  assist  in  putting  up  the  building  under  their 
direction  and  that  of  the  class  instructor.  The  boys 
thus  have  an  opportunity  actually  to  assist  in  putting 
up  the  building,  under  constant  expert  supervision,  and 
when  the  boys  are  otherwise  engaged  in  school  work, 
the  barn  building  goes  on  by  the  carpenters. 

Visits  should  be  made  by  the  class  to  interesting  houses 
and  other  buildings,  especially  farm  buildings,  in  the 
course  of  construction,  where  different  materials  are 
being  used  or  particularly  desirable  plans  carried  out. 

In  this  course,  too,  interesting  local  surveys  may  be 
undertaken  by  individual  students  or  groups  of  students, 
such  as  finding  out  the  methods  of  sewage  disposal  in  use 
on  the  farms  within  a  given  area  and  suggesting  improve- 
ments for  the  various  systems.  Or  a  canvass  may  be 
made  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  farm  water  supply 
within  a  given  district,  the  distance  of  wells  from  out- 
buildings being  noted  in  each  case,  the  slope  of  the  land 
with  relation  to  the  well,  chances  of  contamination  of 
well  water  by  seepage  from  outbuildings,  the  method  of 
distribution  of  the  water  supply  to  buildings,  and  so  on. 


MAKING  A  MINIATURE  FARM  BUILDING,  LA  CROSSE  COUNTY  SCHOOL  OF 
AGRICULTURE,  ONALASKA  (Wis.). 


PRACTICAL  WORK  IN  BUILDING,  HOLLYWOOD  (CAL.)  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


FOURTH   YEAR   AGRICULTURE  285 

Students  may  make  a  plan  for  a  farm  water  supply  and 
sewage  disposal  system  for  some  farm  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, estimates  may  be  obtained  as  to  the  cost  of  in- 
stalling the  system,  including  bathroom  fixtures,  kitchen 
sink,  and  possibly  laundry  tubs. 

Much  of  this  practicum  work  necessitates,  evidently,  a 
good  beginning  knowledge  of  mechanical  drawing.  In 
farm  mechanics  this  is  desirable ;  in  farm  buildings  it  is 
essential.  If  a  special  course  in  mechanical  drawing  is 
given  in  the  school,  it  should  be  required  as  a  pre-requisite 
to  these  courses.  If  no  such  course  is  given,  instruc- 
tion in  mechanical  drawing  must  accompany  this  work, 
though  to  take  time  for  it  now  will,  obviously,  cripple 
the  course  to  some  extent.  But  before  students  can  do 
properly  the  practical  work  in  connection  with  farm 
buildings,  they  must  learn  the  proper  use  and  care  of 
drawing  instruments  and  how  to  make  simple  working 
drawings  with  accuracy  and  precision.  They  must 
acquire  some  knowledge  of  the  more  fundamental  draft- 
ing conventions  and  rules  of  practice,  and  of  the  making  of 
blueprints ;  and  they  should  acquire  a  certain  degree  of 
facility  in  plain  lettering. 

The  equipment  for  the  course  in  farm  mechanics  and 
farm  buildings  should  include  a  model  farm  shop,  as 
mentioned  above,  equipped  with  tools  and  materials  for 
the  making  of  any  ordinary  repairs  upon  the  farm.  The 
size  of  this  shop  will,  however,  need  to  be  larger  than  is 


286         MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

necessary  on  the  average  farm,  and  extra  bench  room  and 
tools  must  be  provided  that  individual  students  may  have 
an  opportunity  to  do  all  the  practicum  work  outlined 
for  them.  The  building  may  be  of  wood,  though  cement 
or  brick  is  preferable;  but  that  part  of  the  shop  floor 
about  the  forge  and  anvil  should  be  of  concrete,  and  it  is 
preferable  that  this  be  used  for  the  entire  floor.  It  is 
desirable  in  many  ways  that  the  shop  be  in  a  building 
separate  from  the  main  high  school  building,  though  in 
climates  where  heat  is  necessary  it  should  usually  be 
near  enough  to  be  heated  by  the  same  system.  If  a 
separate  building  is  unobtainable,  a  basement  room  may 
be  fitted  up  for  the  farm  mechanics  shop,  if  of  suitable  size, 
with  ready  access  to  the  outside  of  the  building,  and 
provided  with  a  concrete  floor  and  proper  lighting.  This 
is  not  advised,  however,  unless  better  arrangements  are 
impossible.  In  case  the  shop  is  in  the  basement,  the 
ceiling  of  the  room  must,  obviously,  be  so  prepared  as  to 
deaden  the  sound  of  the  work  being  done  in  the  shop,  if 
classroom  work  is  to  be  carried  on  with  any  comfort  in 
the  room  above.  In  describing  such  a  shop  the  New 
York  State  Syllabus  says :  "  If  the  building  has  a  gasoline 
engine  or  electric  motor  for  ventilation,  arrangements 
can  often  be  made  for  extending  its  shaft  or  a  counter 
shaft  into  the  shop  room,  to  be  used  for  turning  a  grind- 
stone, blowing  the  forge,  or  running  a  drill  press  or 
wooden  lathe. 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          287 

"  Under  the  row  of  windows  there  should  be  a  continu- 
ous bench,  preferably  built  by  the  students,  of  two-inch 
planks.  This  bench  ought  to  be  about  30  inches  wide 
and  from  25  to  30  feet  long.  It  should  be  provided  at 
regular  intervals  with  five  wood  vises,  to  be  made  by  the 
class  after  the  iron  screws,  sockets  and  handles  are  sup- 
plied. (See  plan  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  347,  page  23.) 

"At  the  end  of  the  bench  nearest  the  forge  and  anvil 
there  should  be  a  blacksmith's  iron  vise  and  near  by  a 
blacksmith's  drill  press.  A  good  grindstone,  mounted 
by  the  students,  can  be  placed  in  a  convenient  corner, 
and  vertical  cabinets  for  the  tools  belonging  to  the  school 
can  be  built  by  the  first  class  from  their  own  designs. 
Some  open  space  should  be  reserved  in  the  middle  of  the 
room  for  the  use  of  sawhorses,  for  setting  up  work  in  the 
course  of  construction  and  for  testing  the  operation  of 
gasoline  engines.  The  forge  should  be  so  placed  as  to 
exhaust  the  smoke  and  gases  into  the  regular  furnace 
stack. 

"  To  deaden  the  sound  of  work  being  done  in  the  shop, 
the  ceiling  of  the  room  can  be  properly  prepared,  if 
desired,  by  the  class  in  regular  exercises.  The  under 
side  of  the  floor  joists  overhead  should  be  sheathed  with 
1  deadening  felt,'  and  this  covered  by  a  tight  wooden 
ceiling  or  by  lathing  and  plastering.  Metallic  ceiling 
should  not  be  used  because  of  its  sound-conducting 
properties." 


288       MATERIALS    AND    METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

The  ideal  arrangement  is  probably  a  separate  "farm 
shop"  building,  or  a  suitable  room  for  this  purpose  in  a 
separate  manual  training  building.  Here  should  be 
provided  a  suitable  place  for  work  and,  either  here  or  in 
an  adjoining  room,  a  space  for  exhibition  and  examina- 
tion of  machines,  engines,  and  other  implements  which 
are  at  the  time  being  studied,  or  which  form  part  of  a 
more  or  less  permanent  exhibit  loaned  by  manufacturers. 

The  tools  and  machines  on  the  school  farm  will  be 
utilized  in  the  study  of  farm  machinery,  but  these  will 
not  suffice.  Many  others  should  be  examined  and  studied 
by  pupils,  either  on  near-by  farms,  at  implement  houses, 
or  in  exhibits  at  the  school,  either  for  short  periods  or 
for  an  indefinite  time.  Farm  implement  houses  are 
frequently  glad  to  loan  machines  and  tools  for  short 
periods  (while  the  class  is  studying  them)  if  they  can  be 
properly  housed ;  and  manufacturers  of  farm  implements 
can  sometimes  be  induced  to  loan  machines  or  engines 
for  indefinite  periods  for  exhibition  purposes.  For 
example,  when  studying  seeding  machinery  it  may  be 
possible  to  borrow  a  number  of  seeders  from  implement 
houses,  showing  seeders  for  different  purposes  and  of 
different  makes.  These  may  be  kept  on  exhibition  at  the 
school  while  the  class  is  studying  seeders,  or  until  they 
have  had  an  opportunity  to  become  familiar  with  them, 
and  then  returned  to  the  implement  houses,  when  a  new 
kind  of  implement  is  borrowed  for  exhibition  and  study. 


FOURTH   YEAR   AGRICULTURE  289 

When  studying  gasoline  engines,  too,  it  may  be  possible 
to  borrow  several  engines  from  manufacturers,  through 
local  dealers,  for  study  and  even  for  experimental  pur- 
poses; or  it  may  be  possible  to  secure  loans  of  these 
same  engines  and  machines  for  a  permanent  exhibit,  if  a 
proper  place  is  provided  for  them.  However,  where 
engines  are  loaned  by  different  firms,  it  is  important  that 
the  teacher  occupy  a  strictly  neutral  position  as  to  favor- 
ing one  engine  more  than  another.  After  studying  the 
construction  of  different  types  of  engines  and  their  use, 
students  should  be  able  to  judge  accurately  for  them- 
selves as  to  different  makes  of  engines. 

In  any  event,  whether  the  school  is  able  to  secure  ma- 
chines and  engines  for  exhibit  or  not,  the  catalogues  and 
books  of  directions  of  different  firms  should  be  secured 
and  studied,  and  the  engines  compared  by  students. 
In  addition,  students  should  of  course  be  given  an  op- 
portunity to  see  as  much  as  is  practicable  of  the  use  of 
different  machines,  either  on  the  school  farm  or  on  the 
farms  of  the  community  where  they  are  owned. 

Among  other  items  useful  in  the  equipment  for  a  farm 
mechanics  course,  sectional  models  of  gasoline  engines 
will  be  found  of  great  help,  as  also  blueprints  of  such 
sectional  models,  if  they  can  be  obtained  from  the 
manufacturers.  The  needed  instruments  for  farm  sur- 
veying, including  levels,  rods,  steel  tape,  range  poles, 
etc.,  should  also  be  available  for  use. 


2QO       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Collections  of  sets  of  blueprints  for  farm  buildings, 
with  photographs,  will,  if  properly  arranged,  labeled, 
and  catalogued,  form  a  valuable  part  of  the  equipment. 
In  addition,  after  one  or  two  years,  the  illustrative  value 
of  the  models  of  buildings  made  by  previous  classes  will 
become  apparent. 

Drawing  instruments  and  materials  necessary  for  the 
work  may  be  purchased  by  individual  students  or  they 
may  be  bought  by  the  school.  In  this  case  a  laboratory 
fee  may  be  charged  for  their  use.  They  should  include 
a  set  of  drawing  instruments  for  each  member  of  the 
class,  T  squares,  blueprint  frames,  drawing  boards  or 
desks  (which  may  be  made  by  the  manual  training 
students),  3O°-6o°  triangles,  and  45°  triangles. 

The  library  equipment  should  include  the  publications 
listed  under  agricultural  engineering  in  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations  Circular  94,  "Free  Publications  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  Classified  for  the  Use  of  Teach- 
ers," and  other  government  publications  on  similar 
topics  issued  since  the  publication  of  this  circular.  Nor 
should  the  publications  of  other  governments  be  neg- 
lected. Publications  such  as  the  New  South  Wales 
farmers'  bulletins  on  "  Blacksmi thing  for  Farmers/' 
"Harness,  Harness  Fitting  and  Repairing,"  and  others  of 
similar  nature,  may  well  be  added  to  the  library.  A  very 
large  number  of  excellent  bulletins  and  circulars  have 
been  issued  by  the  various  state  experiment  stations 


IRRIGATION  WELL  ON  THE  SCHOOL  FARM,  OXNARD  (CAL.)  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


FOURTH   YEAR   AGRICULTURE  2QI 

on  the  planning  and  construction  of  farm  buildings,  and 
a  lesser  number  dealing  with  farm  mechanics  topics. 
Copies  of  the  more  important  of  these  should  be  secured 
for  the  school,  and  in  some  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to 
secure  duplicate  copies  for  members  of  the  class.  In 
addition  to  the  agricultural  experiment  station  publica- 
tions the  following  special  bulletins  should  also  be  se- 
cured :  — 

Cornell    University    Farm    Mechanics    Bulletin,    "Knots    and 

Hitches." 
Cornell  University  Farmers'  Reading  Course  Bulletins,    Ser.  6, 

on  Buildings  and  Yards. 
University  of  Illinois  Engineering  Experiment  Station  Bui.  No. 

25,  "Lighting  Country  Homes  by  Private  Electric  Plants." 
University  of  Illinois  Agricultural  College   Extension   Bulletin, 

"How  to  run  Farm  Machinery." 
Iowa  State  College  Engineering  Experiment  Station  Bui.   v.   4, 

No.  6,  "Sewage  Disposal  Plants  for  Private  Houses." 
Iowa  State  College  Engineering  Experiment  Station  Bui.  v.  10, 

No.  i,  "Electric  Power  on  the  Farm." 
North  Carolina  State  Board  of  Health  Special  Bui.  No.  12,  July, 

1912,  "Residential  Sewage  Disposal  Plants." 

Many  publications  of  farm  machinery  and  other 
manufacturing  firms  contain  valuable  material  for  the 
farm  mechanics  class,  as,  for  example,  the  "  Engine 
Operator's  Guide/'  "  Development  of  Agricultural  Ma- 
chines," and  "Three  Hundred  Years  of  Farm  Power" 
(issued  by  the  International  Harvester  Company), 
" Concrete  Construction  about  the  Home  and  Farm" 


2Q2       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

(Atlas  Portland  Cement  Company),  and  others.  These, 
too,  should  be  secured,  though  it  should  be  remembered 
that  they  are  written  for  advertising  purposes  and  that 
they  sometimes  overemphasize  the  value  of  a  particular 
machine. 

Among  magazines  dealing  more  or  less  with  farm 
mechanics  topics  the  Scientific  American,  Popular 
Mechanics,  and  the  Patent  Office  Gazette  should  be 
received  at  the  school  library  regularly  if  possible. 
The  school  or  class  may  subscribe  for  the  first  two,  but 
the  last  can  be  obtained  free  of  cost  by  application  to 
the  district  congressman  or  one  of  the  United  States 
senators  for  the  state. 

The  numbers  of  each  periodical  making  a  volume 
should  be  bound  when  complete,  if  the  school  can  afford 
it.  *In.any  case  they  should  be  carefully  preserved,  and 
it  is  desirable  that  the  more  valuable  material  in  them 
be  indexed  in  the  school  library  catalogue. 

Among  books,  any  of  the  following  will  be  found  use- 
ful in  connection  with  the  farm  mechanics  and  farm 
buildings  course. 

American  Portland  Cement  Manufacturers'  Association.  Con- 
crete in  the  Country.  Phil.  Pub.  by  the  Association.  1910. 

ANTHONY,  G.  C.  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing.  Bost. 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  1904. 

BASHORE,  H.  B.  Sanitation  of  a  Country  House.  N.  Y.  John 
Wiley  &  Sons.  1905. 


FOURTH  YEAR   AGRICULTURE  2Q3 

COBLEIGH,  R.    Handy  Farm  Devices  and  How  to  make  Them. 

N.  Y.     Orange  Judd.     1909. 
DAVIDSON,  J.  B.,  and  CHASE,  L.  W.    Farm  Machinery  and  Farm 

Motors.     N.  Y.     Orange  Judd.     1908. 
DODD,  HELEN.    The  Healthful  Farmhouse.    Bost.    Whitcomb 

&  Barrows.     1911. 
DREW,  J.  M.    Farm  Blacksmithing.    St.  Paul,  Minn.    Webb 

Pub.  Co.     1907. 
ELLIOT,  C.  G.     Practical   Farm   Drainage.     N.  Y.     John  Wiley 

&  Sons.     1908. 

Farm  Buildings.     Chic.     Sanders  Pub.  Co.     1905. 
FOSTER,  E.  W.    Elementary  Woodworking.    Bost.     Ginn  &  Co. 

1904. 
Goss,  W.  F.  M.    Benchwork  in  Wood.    Peoria,  111.    Manual 

Arts  Press.     1912. 

GRIFFITH,  I.  S.     Correlated  Courses  in  Woodwork  and  Mechan- 
ical Drawing.     Peoria,  111.    Manual  Arts  Press.     1912. 
GRIFFITH,  I.  S.    Essentials  in  Woodworking.    Peoria,  111.    Man- 
ual Arts  Press.     1912. 
GRTMSHAW,  R.    Saw  Filing.     N.  Y.     Norman  W.  Henley  Put*.  Co. 

1912. 
HALSTED,   B.   D.    Farm    Conveniences.    N.  Y.    Orange   Judd. 

1906. 
HODGSON,  F.  T.,  ed.    Modern  Carpentry.    Chic.    F.  J.  Drake 

&  Co.     1907. 
HOLMSTROM,  J.  G.    Modern  Blacksmithing.     Chic.    F.  J.  Drake 

&  Co.     1904. 
HOLSTROM,  J.   G.    Standard   Blacksmithing.    St.   Paul,   Minn. 

Webb  Pub.  Co.     1907. 

KING,  F.  H.     Irrigation  and  Drainage.    N.  Y.     Macm.     1008. 
KING,   F.  H.     Physics  of  Agriculture.     Madison,  Wis.     F.   H. 

King.     1907. 
LYNDE,  C.  J.    Home  Water  Works :  a  Manual  of  Water  Supply  in 

Country  Homes.    N.  Y.     Sturgis  &  Walton.     1911. 


2Q4       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

MARTIN,  G.  A.    Farm  Appliances.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.     1907. 
MARTIN,  G.  A.    Fences,  Gates,  and   Bridges.    N.  Y.    Orange 

Judd.     1887. 
MATHEWSON,  F.  E.,  and  STEWART,  J.  L.    Applied  Mechanical 

Drawing  for  First  and  Second  Year  Classes  in  High  School. 

Springfield,  Mass.     Taylor-Holden  Co.     1911. 
OGDEN,  H.  N.    Rural  Hygiene.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1911. 
POWELL,  F.  E.    Small  Dynamos  and  Motors.    N.  Y.    Spon  & 

Chamberlain.     1910. 

POWELL,  E.  P.    The  Country  Home.    N.  Y.    McClure,  Phil- 
lips &  Co.     1904. 
PUTNAM,  X.  W.     The   Gasoline    Engine    on   the   Farm.     N.  Y. 

Norman  W.  Henley  Pub.  Co.     1913. 
REED,  S.  B.    Modern  House  Plans  for  Everybody.    N.  Y.    Orange 

Judd.     1900. 

ROBERTS,  I.  P.    The  Farmstead.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1907. 
TRACY,   J.    C.    Introductory   Course   in   Mechanical   Drawing. 

N.Y.     Harper.     1898. 
VERRILL,   A.   H.      Knots,   Splices,   and  Rope  Work.      N.   Y. 

Norman  W.  Henley  Pub.  Co.     1912. 

The  community  work  which  may  be  done  in  connec- 
tion with  farm  mechanics  and  farm  buildings  is  varied. 
Illustrated  lectures  will  be  found  especially  interesting 
and  helpful.  Fortunately  it  will  not  be  necessary  for 
the  teacher  to  prepare  all  these  for  himself.  Excellent 
illustrated  farmers'  institute  lectures  on  farm  buildings 
and  farm  mechanics  have  been  published  by  the  Office 
of  Experiment  Stations,  and  slides  to  accompany  them 
may  be  borrowed.  Those  so  far  issued  are:  No.  5,  on 
"Silo  Construction";  No.  7,  " Roads  and  Road-build- 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE  295 

ing";  No.  8,  on  "Farm  Architecture";  and  No.  12,  on 
"Farm  Homes."  Photographs  and  slides  may  also  be 
secured  from  departments  of  agricultural  implement 
manufacturing  companies,  such  as  the  International 
Harvester  Service  Bureau,  for  use  in  illustrated  talks. 

As  a  part  of  the  community  work  plowing  contests 
may  be  held ;  short  courses  in  farm  repair  work  may 
be  given;  plans  may  be  made  for  sewage  disposal  sys- 
tems. Farmers'  and  farmers'  wives'  institutes  may  be 
held  for  the  discussion  of  problems  relating  to  the  farm 
home,  farm  home  conveniences,  and  related  topics. 

More  and  more  interest  is  being  taken  in  such  topics 
as  these,  and  country  people  are  ready  and  eager  for  help- 
ful suggestions. 

Following  the  farm  mechanics  and  farm  buildings 
work  of  the  first  semester  of  the  fourth  high  school 
year  should  come,  as  has  been  said,  the  study  of  some 
of  the  more  important  problems  of  rural  economics, 
especially  those  relating  to  farm  management.  It  is  not 
enough  that  the  agricultural  student  should  have  learned 
something  as  to  farm  equipment  and  its  care,  or  that 
he  should  understand  the  basic  principles  of  plant  and 
animal  production.  He  must  know,  not  only  how  to 
raise  good  crops  and  stock,  but  how  to  raise  them  eco- 
nomically. He  must  not  only  be  able  to  raise  them 
economically,  but  he  must  understand  how  to  market 
them  wisely.  That  is,  he  must  know  how  to  manage 


296        MATERIALS    AND  METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

the  work  of  the  farm  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  the 
maximum  profit  from  the  land,  labor,  and  capital  in- 
vested. 

We  are  coming  to  realize  more  and  more  that  success- 
ful farming  is  not  dependent  merely  upon  a  knowledge 
of  plants,  animals,  and  of  soils ;  of  how  and  when  to  sow 
and  cultivate  and  irrigate.  All  this  must  be  accompanied 
by  an  understanding  and  application  of  business  methods. 
The  application  of  science  in  production  must  go  hand 
in  hand  with  the  application  of  the  principles  of  scien- 
tific management  if  the  farm  is  to  pay  as  it  should. 
The  person  who  engages  in  farming  as  an  occupation 
must  make  of  it  a  business.  He  must  understand  how 
to  select  a  farm  to  suit  the  kind  of  farming  to  be  carried 
on;  how  to  arrange  his  fields  systematically;  how  to 
estimate  accurately  the  cost  of  growing  different  crops 
and  their  net  profit  to  him;  how  to  carry  on  his  field 
operations  in  the  most  economical  as  well  as  the  most 
effective  way ;  and  how  to  market  his  crops  most  prof- 
itably. 

The  work  of  the  rural  economics  or  farm  management 
course  should  include,  then,  a  study  of  how  to  choose 
a  farm;  the  factors  affecting  the  economic  value  of  a 
farm;  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  various 
landholding  systems,  as  ownership  and  rental,  share 
and  cash  tenantry ;  the  kinds  of  farming ;  principles 
and  systems  of  crop  rotation ;  considerations  involved 


FOURTH   YEAR   AGRICULTURE  297 

in  making  a  farm  layout  plan ;  the  keeping  of  farm  rec- 
ords and  accounts ;  and  the  marketing  of  farm  products. 
Students  should  become  familiar  with  the  ordinary  busi- 
ness forms  and  should  have  some  instruction  as  to  laws 
and  legal  forms  of  particular  interest  to  farmers.  Lastly, 
some  attention  should  be  given  to  the  more  important 
problems  of  rural  social  life,  farmers'  organizations, 
cooperation  of  farmers  for  various  purposes,  rural 
sports  and  recreations,  and  similar  topics. 

One  daily  period  (of  about  forty-five  minutes)  through- 
out the  semester  will  probably  prove  sufficient  for  the 
course,  except  that  on  one  day  per  week  there  should 
be  a  double  period  for  practicum  work. 

Because  of  the  lack  of  a  suitable  high  school  textbook 
in  rural  economy,  or  farm  management,  the  work  must, 
for  the  most  part,  be  presented  to  students  in  lecture 
form  and  as  reading  assignments.  Hunt's  "How  to 
Choose  a  Farm,"  Card's  "Farm  Management,"  Warren's 
"  Farm  Management,"  and  parts  of  volumes  one  and  four 
of  Bailey's  "Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture"  will 
perhaps  be  the  most  useful  books  for  the  course,  though 
Carver's  "Principles  of  Rural  Economics"  and  Taylor's 
"  Agricultural  Economics "  will  undoubtedly  be  fre- 
quently referred  to. 

The  lectures  should  cover  the  topics  outlined  for  the 
course  in  logical  order  and  in  a  simple,  clear,  and  definite 
way,  suited  to  the  comprehension  of  pupils.  The  essen- 


298        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

tials  in  farm  management  should  be  emphasized,  and 
each  topic  should  be  discussed  with  reference  to  local 
conditions.  Talks  to  students  by  successful  farmers  of 
the  community  on  the  business  side  of  different  kinds 
of  farming  and  on  the  ways  in  which  they  have,  individ- 
ually, worked  out  farm  management  problems,  should 
also  be  of  advantage  if  they  can  be  arranged  for. 

The  practicum  work  should  be  very  carefully  outlined 
by  the  instructor  and  related  as  closely  as  possible  to 
the  lecture  and  reading  assignment  work.  A  wide  range 
of  exercises  is  made  possible  by  the  nature  of  the  work, 
but  care  should  be  taken  that  those  selected  are  of  prac- 
tical value. 

They  may  include  the  drawing  of  the  home  farm, 
or  of  any  given  farm,  to  a  scale,  showing  the  present  ar- 
rangement of  fields,  yards,  and  buildings  in  the  "home" 
plot,  of  orchards,  gardens,  etc.,  and  suggesting  any 
possible  improvements.  Model  plans  for  the  layout 
of  fields  and  an  irrigation  system  for  given  farms  may 
be  made.  Problems  dealing  with  the  cost  of  different 
crops,  their  value,  and  the  net  profit  derived  from  them 
may  be  worked  out.  Excursions  should  be  made  to 
score  farms,  —  to  indicate  the  economic  value  of  farms, 
-using  some  good  score  card,  such  as  that  used  at 
Cornell. 

A  large  number  of  interesting  problems  deal  with  the 
difference  in  the  amount  of  labor  it  is  necessary  to  do 


FOURTH   YEAR   AGRICULTURE 

in  caring  for  crops  on  a  given  farm  where  fields,  yards, 
and  buildings  are  poorly  located,  and  the  same  farm 
when  they  are  properly  located.  Among  these  are  ex- 
ercises to  determine  the  most  desirable  shape  and  size 
of  fields  for  economy  in  plowing  and  for  harvesting 
certain  crops;  exercises  relating  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  farm  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  the  greatest  economy 
in  hauling  crops  and  manure  and  in  going  to  and  from 
work;  exercises  to  show  how  to  secure  the  greatest 
economy  in  fencing ;  and  many  others. 

All  students  should  enter  a  set  of  farm  accounts 
for  a  part  of  a  year  and  balance  the  books.  They 
should  make  out  sample  bills  of  goods,  receipts,  a 
contract  with  a  hired  man,  a  lease,  and  similar  busi- 
ness forms. 

Among  the  individual  or  home  projects  which  may  be 
attempted  are :  making  an  inventory  of  all  the  property 
on  the  home  farm,  not  including  household  articles; 
estimating  what  per  cent  of  the  capital  is  in  real  estate ; 
what  per  cent  in  machinery ;  in  live  stock ;  and  in  other 
important  items.  Or  individual  students  may  keep 
an  account  with  chickens,  horses,  garden,  or  some  crop, 
and  determine  the  profit  or  loss.  Another  good  problem 
is  to  have  each  student  assume  that  he  has  a  definite 
amount  of  wheat,  oats,  hay,  potatoes,  etc.  By  consult- 
ing the  market  reports  for  a  stated  market  in  a  reliable 
agricultural  paper,  he  is  to  determine  the  best  time  to 


300   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

sell  his  products,  everything  to  be  disposed  of  at  a  given 
time. 

As  a  thesis  or  term  problem,  each  student  may,  if  de- 
sired, take  some  one  farm  and  work  out  for  it  a  scientific 
scheme  of  management.  Such  a  farm  problem  corre- 
sponds, as  has  well  been  said,  "to  the  plans  and  specifi- 
cations and  financial  estimates  that  an  architect  makes 
for  a  building."  In  solving  it  the  student  is  expected 
to  apply  all  that  he  has  learned  of  the  practice  of  agricul- 
ture to  the  making  of  an  ideal  scheme  of  management 
for  a  particular  farm.  In  writing  up  such  a  problem  a 
full  description  of  the  farm  in  question  should  first  be 
given,  including  location,  size,  fields,  soils,  previous 
crops,  buildings,  fences,  roads,  markets,  etc.  An  in- 
ventory of  the  property  on  the  farm  or  a  list  of  needed 
equipment  should  then  follow  and  a  proposed  scheme 
of  management  for  three  or  more  years. 

Excellent  directions  for  working  out  such  a  farm 
problem  as  this  are  given  in  Warren  and  Livermore's 
"Laboratory  Exercises  in  Farm  Management,"  though, 
since  this  is  a  manual  intended  for  college  students,  it 
may  be  wise  to  modify  the  exercise  somewhat  for  high 
school  pupils. 

In  making  out  the  list  of  exercises  for  the  farm  manage- 
ment work  this  book  should  by  all  means  be  consulted, 
for  in  it  are  given  a  large  number  of  excellent  exercises. 
Some  of  them  may  be  too  difficult  for  high  school  pupils, 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          301 

but  many  of  them  can  very  well  be  used.  The  fact  that 
the  exercises  are  arranged  by  subjects  and  that  an  ex- 
cellent list  of  references  to  books  and  bulletins,  similarly 
arranged,  is  also  given,  makes  the  book  especially  valu- 
able to  the  farm  management  teacher. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  farm  management  work 
it  would  be  well,  during  this  last  semester  of  the  high 
school  course,  to  arrange  for  an  "agricultural  news  hour" 
at  least  once  every  two  weeks.  If  no  other  time  can 
be  arranged,  an  hour  of  the  farm  management  recitation 
periods  might  be  taken  for  it. 

At  this  time  new  agricultural  publications  of  interest, 
published  by  the  government,  experiment  stations,  state 
boards  of  agriculture,  agricultural  associations  and 
societies,  or  by  individuals,  should  be  brought  to  the 
attention  of  pupils  and  each  briefly  discussed.  Wher- 
ever possible  the  publications  themselves  should  be  at 
hand  and  should  be  put  upon  a  " reserve"  or  " exhibit" 
shelf  or  table  in  the  school  library  for  a  definite  period, 
so  that  students  may  inspect  them.  By  this  means 
students  will  become  aware  of  sources  of  agricultural 
literature  of  which  they  may  not  have  known  before; 
important  publications  of  which  they  would  probably 
not  hear,  otherwise,  are  called  to  their  attention;  and 
they  are  shown  the  need,  on  the  part  of  the  progressive 
farmer,  of  being  " up-to-date"  in  acquaintance  with 
printed  agricultural  information. 


302       MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

The  equipment  for  farm  management  should  include 
drawing  materials,  as  for  the  first  half  year  course,  maps 
of  farms  to  a  scale,  if  they  can  be  secured,  sample  farm 
records  and  accounts,  farm  score  cards,  and  a  good  col- 
lection of  books  and  bulletins. 

The  bulletins  listed  in  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
Circular  94  under  agricultural  economics  should  by  all 
means  be  secured,  together  with  as  many  of  the  experi- 
ment station  publications  as  promise  to  be  useful  in  con- 
nection with  the  course.  The  recent  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry  Bulletins  No.  236,  "Farm  Management,"  and 
No.  259,  "What  is  Farm  Management?"  and  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  511,  "Farm  Bookkeeping,"  will  be  espe- 
cially useful.  Nor  should  foreign  publications  be  neg- 
lected. A  majority  of  these  are  in  foreign  languages  and 
untranslated,  but  many  are  in  English.  Publications 
of  departments  of  agriculture  such  as  that  of  New 
South  Wales  should  be  watched  by  the  teacher,  and 
those  of  particular  value  sent  for.  In  connection  with 
this  course,  for  example,  New  South  Wales  Farmers' 
Bulletin  43,  "Bookkeeping  for  Farmers,"  will  be  found 
useful.  Publications  of  organizations,  such  as  the 
Michigan  Political  Science  Association  Papers  on  "Social 
Problems  of  the  Farmer,"  are  also  often  of  value  and  may 
frequently  be  secured  free  of  charge. 

In  assigning  class  reading  references  the  valuable  ma- 
terial in  the  general  magazines  should  not  be  forgotten. 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          303 

Excellent  articles  on  farm  management  and  rural  social 
problems  appear  in  them  from  time  to  time.  In  fact, 
the  general  periodicals  probably  contain  more  articles 
dealing  with  these  than  with  any  other  agricultural 
topics.  The  school  library  will  probably  contain  files 
of  but  few  if  any  of  these  periodicals,  but  many  of  them 
may  be  found  at  almost  any  town  library.  By  consult- 
ing the  periodical  indexes  under  such  subject  heads 
as  farm  products,  farm  management,  farm  life,  and 
similar  topics,  many  valuable  articles  may  be  traced.  It 
must  also  be  said,  however,  that  there  is  much  worth- 
less material  found  in  this  mass  of  good  things.  The 
agricultural  teacher  should  look  over  all  such  articles 
carefully  before  assigning  them  for  class  reading,  to 
make  sure  that  they  are  sound,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
good  farm  management,  and  not  written  merely  to  catch 
the  reader's  attention  and  arouse  "back  to  the  land" 
enthusiasm. 

Among  books,  the  farm  management  teacher  will 
find  many  of  interest  for  his  school  library  in  the  follow- 
ing list :  — 

BAILEY,  L.  H.  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  United  States. 
N.  Y.  Macm.  1911. 

BAILEY,  L.  H.  The  State  and  the  Farmer.  N.  Y.  Macm. 
1908. 

BEXELL,  J.  A.  Farm  Accounting  and  Business  Methods.  Spring- 
field, Mass.  Home  Correspondence  School.  1911. 


304        MATERIALS    AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

BUELL,  JENNIE.  One  Woman's  Work  for  Farm  Women.  Bost. 
Whitcomb  &  Barrows.  1908. 

BUTTERFIELD,  K.  L.  Chapters  in  Rural  Progress.  Chic.  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  Press.  1908. 

CARD,  F.  W.  Farm  Management.  N.  Y.  Doubleday,  Page  & 
Co.  1907. 

CARVER,  T.  N.  Principles  of  Rural  Economics.  Bost.  Ginn  & 
Co.  1911. 

COULTER,  J.  C.  Cooperation  among  Fanners.  N.  Y.  Sturgis 
&  Walton.  1911. 

FAIRCHILD,  G.  F.   Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare.   N.Y.   Macm.  1900. 

GREEN,  J.  B.  Law  for  the  American  Farmer.  N.  Y.  Macm. 
1911. 

HAYS,  W.  M.    Farm  Development.    N.  Y.    Orange  Judd.     1910. 

HUNT,  T.  F.    How  to  Choose  a  Farm.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1906. 

HUNT,  T.  F.     The  Young  Farmer.     N.  Y.     Orange  Judd.     1912. 

PLUNKETT,  SIR  HORACE.  Rural  Life  Problems  of  the  United 
States.  N.  Y.  Macm.  1910. 

POWELL,  G.  H.    Cooperation  in  Agriculture.   N.Y.   Macm.    1913. 

ROBERTS,  I.  P.  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook.  N.  Y. 
Macm.  1903. 

ROBERTS,  I.  P.    The  Farmstead.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1907. 

STERN,  R.  B.  Neighborhood  Entertainments.  N.  Y.  Sturgis  & 
Walton.  1910. 

STREETER,  J.  W.    Fat  of  the  Land.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1905. 

TAYLOR,  H.  C.    Agricultural  Economics.    N.  Y.    Macm.     1905. 

United  States  Industrial  Commission,  Report,  v.  6:  Distri- 
bution and  Marketing  of  Farm  Products,  v.  10:  Agricul- 
ture, Land  Tenure,  Marketing,  Agricultural  Labor,  Farmers' 
Organizations.  Washington,  D.  C.  Government  Printing 
Office.  1901. 

United  States  Country  Life  Commission,  Report.  N.  Y.  Sturgis 
&  Walton.  1911. 

WARREN,  G.  F.     Farm  Management.     N.  Y.     Macm.     1913. 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          305 

WARREN,  G.  F.,  and  LIVERMORE,  K.  C.    Laboratory  Exercises  in 
Farm  Management.     N.  Y.    Macm.     1911. 

The  community  work  which  may  be  done  along  the 
lines  of  rural  economics  is  especially  attractive  and 
greatly  needed.  Farmers  have  been  told  much,  and 
have  learned  much,  during  the  past  few  years,  as  to  how 
to  increase  production.  They  need  now  to  know  more  as 
to  how  to  increase  profits.  They  need  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  keeping  of  business  records  and  accounts, 
and  of  their  value,  of  how  to  prepare  their  products  for 
market  and  how  to  sell  them  to  the  best  advantage. 
They  are  becoming  more  and  more  interested  in  de- 
veloping the  social  agencies  of  rural  communities  and  in 
making  the  most  of  them.  They  want  to  know  how  to 
have  a  more  interesting  and  helpful  social  life;  how  to 
develop  rural  sports  and  recreations;  how  to  cooperate 
for  mutual  good;  and  how  to  improve  their  existing 
organizations. 

It  is  the  privilege  of  the  agricultural  teacher,  familiar 
with  what  has  been  done  along  these  lines  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  to  show  them  what  they  can  do 
along  these  and  other  lines  to  raise  the  standard  of  coun- 
try living  and  to  emphasize  its  many  advantages. 

Before  attempting  any  community  work  in  farm 
management,  however,  the  teacher  should  be  sure  he 
knows  his  field.  He  should  himself  do  a  little  local 
survey  work,  in  order  to  get  acquainted  with  conditions, 


306        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

the  special  economic  and  social  problems  of  the  farmers 
in  the  surrounding  community.  He  should  undertake 
to  find  out  what  is  being  taught  in  the  surrounding  rural 
schools ;  the  amount  of  education  the  average  farm  boys 
and  girls  get  and  wherein  it  lacks  in  training  for  their 
particular  work;  what  kinds  of  homes  they  live  in; 
what  particular  advantages  and  disadvantages  they 
have ;  what  proportion  of  the  farmers  are  tenants ; 
what  is  the  average  size  of  farms ;  what  kind  of  books 
farmers  keep ;  whether  farmers  are  fairly  paid  for  their 
work  or  not ;  and  many  other  things. 

Some  of  this  survey  work  may  be  done,  if  desired,  as 
class  practicums  by  students;  but  the  teacher  should 
himself  get  in  touch  with  conditions.  Only  when  he 
knows  his  field  and  its  problems  is  he  in  a  position  to  do 
effective  community  work  dealing  with  problems  of  rural 
economics.  When  farmers  feel  that  he  is  familiar  with 
needs,  he  will  be  able  to  interest  them  in  his  suggestions, 
and  they  will  feel  that  they  are  worth  trial.  Farmers' 
organizations  may  then  be  induced  to  make,  perhaps 
under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  a  more  thorough 
survey  of  the  community  conditions  and  needs  than  can 
be  undertaken  by  him  with  his  limited  time  and  means. 

These  surveys  may  deal  with  social  or  other  conditions. 
Data  may  be  gathered  for  the  purpose  of  securing  in- 
formation preliminary  to  the  improvement  of  the  social 
or  the  economic  situation.  But  whatever  the  nature 


FOURTH  YEAR  AGRICULTURE          307 

of  the  surveys  may  be,  they  should  be  carefully  planned 
and  accurately  carried  out,  pointing  out  clearly  all  the 
needed  facts  concerning  the  conditions  being  investi- 
gated, and  thus  forming  a  basis  for  intelligent  effort  on 
the  part  of  organizations  and  individuals  for  the  common 
good.  In  connection  with  the  survey  work,  L.  H. 
Bailey's  Cornell  bulletin,  "The  Survey  Idea  in  Rural 
Life,"  and  University  of  Wisconsin  Circular  of  Informa- 
tion 29,  "A  Method  of  Making  a  Social  Survey  of  a 
Rural  Community,"  will  both  be  found  useful. 

As  another  part  of  the  community  work  of  the  high 
school,  related  to  farm  management,  "country  life  con- 
ferences" may  be  arranged  for,  to  be  held  at  the  school 
building  or  elsewhere.  Here  programs  may  be  given 
at  which  such  topics  as  the  country  church,  the  country 
school,  banking  systems  and  the  farmer,  cooperation 
in  marketing,  and  many  others  are  discussed.  Short 
courses  may  be  given  in  the  keeping  of  farm  records 
and  accounts ;  in  the  advertising  and  marketing  of  farm 
products ;  in  laws  as  related  to  the  farmer ;  or  in  general 
farm  management.  On  the  school  farm,  experiments 
and  demonstrations  in  crop  rotation,  in  the  use  of  fer- 
tilizers, and  in  the  culture  of  new  plants,  may  be  made 
for  the  benefit  of  the  community. 

The  difficulty  is  not  to  find  useful  work  to  do,  but  to 
know  what  can  be  omitted  with  least  loss  to  the  com- 
munity. 


308        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

OUTLINES    OF    HIGH    SCHOOL    WORK    IN    FARM 
MECHANICS  AND   FARM   MANAGEMENT 


Outline  of  farm  mechanics  work  at  the  Gardena  (Cal.)  Agricul- 
tural High  School.  (Outline  furnished  by  Mr.  Robert  J. 
Teal,  instructor  in  charge  of  the  work.) 

In  this  school,  grades  7  to  12  are  included,  the  work  in  farm  me- 
chanics starting  with  the  eighth  grade. 

Eighth  grade 

SHOP  WORK  MECHANICAL  DRAWING 

Four  hours  per  week  throughout  2^  hours  per  week  in  mechan- 

the    year.     First    half    year,  ical  and  freehand  drawing,  to 

elementary    cabinet    making.  be  correlated  with  the  eighth 

Second    half    year,    making  grade    woodworking    course, 

farm  devices,  poultry  appli-  and  in  preparation  for  ninth 

ances,  etc.  year  work. 

Ninth  grade 

Six  hours  per  week  throughout  Four  hours  per  week  through- 
year.  Course  in  farm  car-  out  year.  This  course  is 
pentry  and  cement  work.  In-  designed  not  so  much  to  de- 
struction and  practice  in  the  velop  a  mastery  of  technique 
construction  of  farm  build-  as  to  acquaint  the  pupils  with 
ings.  Actual  construction  the  methods  of  construction  of 
has  formed  and  will  continue  various  types  of  farm  build- 
to  form  the  larger  part  of  the  ings.  Includes  making  esti- 
work  in  this  course.  mates,  taking  of  bills  of  ma- 
terials, etc. 

Tenth  grade 

Six  hours  per  week  through-  Six  hours  per  week  throughout 
out  year.  Farm  blacksmith-  year.  Elementary  machine 
ing.  drawing. 


FOURTH   YEAR   AGRICULTURE  309 

Twelfth  grade 

SHOP  WORK 

Physics  throughout  the  year  will 
have  an  agricultural  bearing. 
During  the  last  ten  weeks  of 
the  physics  course  the  time 
will  be  given  up  to  a  practical 
consideration  of  farm  machin- 
ery and  farm  motors.  This  is 
in  addition  to  the  theoretical 
consideration  which  will  be 
given  these  matters  during  the 
remainder  of  the  course  in 
physics. 

Mr.  Teal  says  with  regard  to  the  farm  mechanics  equipment :  — 
"A  new  farm  mechanics  building  is  nearing  completion,  and  will 
be  ready  for  occupancy  by  the  end  of  this  month  (April,  1912).  It 
will  contain  a  woodshop,  mechanical  drawing  room,  finishing  room, 
lumber  room,  tool  room,  besides  office,  lavatories,  and  locker  rooms. 
It  is  of  brick,  and  will  cost  about  $8000.  It  will  be  equipped  with 
24  woodworking  benches  and  24  mechanical  drawing  tables, 
benches  and  tables  costing  about  $900 ;  a  circular  saw ;  a  band- 
saw  ;  a  jointer ;  a  turning  lathe ;  a  power  grindstone ;  and  later 
with  several  more  lathes  and  a  planer.  The  present  machine  equipr 
ment  cost  about  $1400. 

"The  forge  shop  was  built  by  the  students  in  carpentry.  The 
material  in  it  cost  about  $400.  The  equipment  consists  of  12 
Buffalo  #666  forges;  one  hand  drill  press;  one  power  grinder; 
besides  a  full  complement  of  vises,  forge  tools,  etc.  The  equip- 
ment is  worth  probably  $900." 


310        MATERIALS    AND    METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 


Farm  management. 


B 
FARM  MANAGEMENT  OUTLINE 

(From  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  Department  of  Agriculture 
Education  Bulletin  No.  7,  p.  u.) 

Arrangement  of  fields,  pastures,  rotatior 

Cost  of  crop  production. 

Most  profitable  crops. 

Most  profitable  stock. 

Housing  of  machinery. 

Study  and  plans  of  farm  buildings. 

Drainage,  tile,  ditches. 

Sanitation. 

Accounts. 

Crop  values  by  current  prices. 

Comparison  of  crop  yields. 

Uses  of  soil. 

Tools :  kinds,  care,  purchase. 
Machinery :  setting  up,  care,  repair. 
Repairs :  tools,  harness,  fences,  buildings 
Gates,   fences,    house: 

etc. 

Farm  mechanics.  Posts, 

Uses  of  cement.    Tile. 

Walk; 

Bench  work,  forge, 
f  Houses,  barns,  outbuilc 
1       ings,   silos. 


Construction. 


Architecture. 


NOTE.  —  The  excellent  Maine  and  Minnesota  outlines  fc 
courses  in  farm  mechanics,  farm  buildings,  and  farm  managemen 
in  high  schools  are  too  long  to  be  quoted  here,  but  should  b 
studied  by  every  teacher  planning  such  courses. 


FOURTH   YEAR   AGRICULTURE  311 

PRACTICUMS 

1.  Outline  lecture,  reading  assignment,  and  practicum 
work  for  a  high  school  course  in  farm  buildings  covering 
nine  weeks,  with  four  double  laboratory  and  one  double 
lecture  and  recitation  period  per  week. 

2.  Prepare   complete   directions   for   ten   practicums 
adapted  to  high  school  use,  dealing  with  farm  manage- 
ment problems. 

3.  Outline  briefly  a  high  school  course  in  farm  me- 
chanics, to  cover  nine  weeks.     Make  an  itemized  list  of 
equipment  needed  for  the  course,  with  cost. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

Country  Life.  Symposium.  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Political  and  Social  Science.  March,  1912.  v.  40. 

Course  in  Agriculture  for  the  High  Schools  of  Michigan.  Michi- 
gan Agricultural  College,  Department  of  Agricultural 
Education,  Bui.  7.  1911.  pp.  24-29. 

Farm  Management:  Organization  of  Research  and  Teaching. 
U.  S.  Bur.  of  Plant  Industry  Bui.  236.  1912. 

Report  of  the  Committee  (of  the  Association  of  American  Agri- 
cultural Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations)  on  Instruction  in 
Agriculture.  1911.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Cir.  115. 
1912. 

What  is  Farm  Management?  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Plant  Industry  Bui. 
259.  1912. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE    SCHOOL  FARM 

IT  is  conceded  by  all  that  the  high  school  teaching 
agriculture  should  have  some  land  at  its  disposal  for 
practical  outdoor  work  and  experimental  and  demon- 
strational  purposes.  Further  than  that,  there  is  little 
agreement  as  to  anything  that  concerns  the  school  farm. 
Opinion  as  to  some  points  is  very  vague ;  as  to  others 
it  is  expressed  very  definitely  but  very  diversely. 

In  general,  we  may  safely  say  that  the  purpose  of  the 
school  farm  is  to  provide  for  pupils  a  place  where  appli- 
cation of  agricultural  facts  and  principles  learned  in  the 
classroom  from  the  lecture  and  textbook  can  be  made ; 
a  place  where  the  working  of  agricultural  principles  can 
be  illustrated ;  a  place  where  agricultural  experiments  in 
the  growing  of  plants,  the  management  of  soils,  the  feed- 
ing of  animals,  and  other  farm  operations  can  be  carried 
on.  Incidentally,  the  school  farm  furnishes  convenient 
material  for  general  science,  biology,  and  other  courses. 

The  work  on  the  school  farm  should  not  only  fix  facts 
and  principles  in  the  pupil's  mind  by  giving  him  practice 
in  doing,  but  through  repetition  in  the  doing  should  give 
him  good  habits  of  work.  The  pupil  should  gain  from 

3" 


THE   SCHOOL   FARM  313 

his  field  practicums  a  certain  facility  in  caring  for  plants, 
animals,  and  equipment,  and  habits  of  doing  such  work 
properly. 

Only  through  a  proper  emphasis  of  practical  exer- 
cises, accompanying  classroom  instruction,  can  agri- 
cultural teaching  in  the  high  school  accomplish  its  full 
purpose  for  pupils.  The  mistake  is  too  frequently  made 
of  placing  unwarranted  reliance  on  the  ability  of  students, 
after  sound  instruction  in  theory,  to  put  that  theory 
into  successful  practice  on  the  farm.  In  only  too  many 
county,  district,  and  special  agricultural  high  schools 
having  well-equipped  farms  of  ample  size,  students  do 
but  very  little  actual  farm  work.  They  are  given 
opportunities  to  observe  experiments  and  demonstra- 
tions, but  have  little  practice  in  farm  operations 
themselves. 

This  is  regrettable,  for  to  see  a  thing  done,  however 
excellent  the  demonstration,  has  not  the  educative 
value  of  doing  it  one's  self.  Neither  skill  nor  business 
ability  can  be  gained  from  books  and  observation  alone. 
We  must  have  in  the  school  work  much  of  books  and 
observation;  but  we  must  also  have,  if  we  are  to  send 
out  capable  workers,  a  sufficient  amount  of  actual, 
practical  farm  work. 

The  agricultural  graduate  of  the  high  school  should 
have  gained  practical  knowledge  of  farm  methods  and 
be  able  to  go  into  farming  as  a  business  if  his  course  has 


314        MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

done  for  him  what  it  ought.  He  will  have  a  more  thor- 
ough understanding  of  his  work  if  he  goes  on  to  the 
agricultural  college,  to  be  sure.  But  he  should  be  able 
successfully  to  engage  in  ordinary  farming  if  he  has 
intelligently  completed  four  years  of  well-planned  agri- 
cultural work  in  the  high  school. 

It  may  perhaps  be  well  to  note  here  the  fact  that  the 
agricultural  colleges  are  being  criticized  at  present  for 
their  failure,  in  so  many  cases,  to  produce  practical 
farmers,  —  except  where  their  students  have  had  pre- 
vious farm  experience.  It  is  possible  that  this  may  be 
one  reason  for  the  insistency  of  the  demand  for  agri- 
culture in  the  high  school.  Undoubtedly  this  defect 
in  the  work  of  the  colleges  is  due  to  the  fact  that  little 
or  no  practical  work  is  included  in  the  college  course. 
Though  this  may  be  excused  in  the  colleges,  where  the 
avowed  purpose  is  to  produce  " specialists,"  —agricul- 
tural experts,  —  it  cannot  be  excused  in  the  high  school. 
And  even  in  the  colleges  there  is  an  increasing  tendency 
to  require  a  certain  amount  of  practical  farm  work  from 
students,  just  as  engineering  students  are  required  to 
give  certain  vacations  to  practical  work.1 

If  the  high  school  "farm"  is  not  of  sufficient  size  to 
permit  the  amount  of  practical  work  desirable  for  each 
student,  home  or  special  project  work  —  that  is,  the 

1  "  Practical  Farm  Experience  for  Agricultural  College  Students." 
Experiment  Station  Record,  February,  1913,  pp.  101-107.  Editorial, 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  315 

utilization  of  home  land,  equipment,  and  time,  outside 
school  hours,  for  practical  training  supervised  by  the 
school  —  must  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  the  work 
at  the  school.  In  fact,  not  a  few  agricultural  teachers 
believe  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  practice  work 
of  students  should  consist  of  just  this  home  project  work, 
carried  on  under  the  supervision  of  the  agricultural 
teacher. 

There  is  little  doubt  but  that,  at  the  ordinary  high 
school  where  students  return  to  their  homes  at  night, 
some  home  project  work  should  be  carried  on  in  connec- 
tion with  at  least  a  part  of  the  agricultural  courses. 
Even  where  students  do  not  live  upon  farms  it  is  prob- 
able that  suitable  arrangements  for  individual  project 
work  could  readily  be  made.  These  may  be  carried 
out  on  farms  of  the  neighborhood,  or  even  in  back  yards, 
or  on  vacant  lots,  in  case  students  live  in  town.  Ex- 
cellent poultry  and  garden  projects,  projects  dealing, 
for  instance,  with  the  care  and  feeding  of  a  single  horse 
or  cow,  can  be  arranged  for  even  in  town.  If  desired, 
the  older  town  students  may  be  encouraged  to  work  on 
near-by  farms  during  the  summer,  for  hire,  special  project 
work  being  arranged  for  in  connection  with  this.  Or, 
for  a  limited  number  of  town  students,  special  project 
work  may  be  arranged  on  the  school  farm,  though  here 
a  special  effort  must  be  made  to  throw  the  student  on 
his  own  responsibility. 


316         MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

The  projects  undertaken  by  individual  pupils  may 
differ  widely,  or  they  may,  in  connection  with  certain 
courses,  be  the  same.  For  example,  in  a  rural  school 
where  the  main  crop  of  the  community  is  corn,  —  all 
the  pupils  in  the  agronomy  course  one  year  grew  an  acre 
of  corn  as  a  home  project.  In  connection  with  an  animal 
husbandry  course,  or  in  a  different  school  as  a  part  of  the 
work  of  the  agronomy  course,  each  pupil  might  have  an 
entirely  different  project.  Where  the  projects  are  the 
same,  the  element  of  competition  introduced  may  have 
a  good  effect  on  the  work.  But  in  many  cases  it  would 
be  unadvisable  or  impossible  to  arrange  the  same  projects 
for  many  of  the  pupils. 

There  need  be  no  difficulty  in  the  majority  of  cases 
in  finding  suitable  home  problems;  for  farming  activi- 
ties resolve  themselves  very  readily  into  "•projects." 
The  greater  number  of  these  are  of  a  productive  nature, 
as  the  growing  of  a  crop  of  clover  or  alfalfa,  or  the  pro- 
duction of  eggs  for  the  market.  But  a  project  may  be 
experimental,  as  in  the  feeding  of  an  untried  ration  or  the 
testing  of  an  untried  spraying  mixture ;  or  it  may  con- 
sist in  making  some  improvement  about  the  farm,  as 
constructing  a  concrete  walk  or  making  a  lawn.  What- 
ever the  home  projects  selected,  they  should  be  appro- 
priate to  the  school  instruction  in  connection  with  which 
they  are  assigned  and  to  the  home  farm  or  village  lot 
where  carried  on.  If  possible,  they  should  be  such  as 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  317 

appeal  especially  to  the  interest  of  the  particular  stu- 
dents undertaking  them.  That  they  should  also  com- 
mand the  interest  and  support  of  parents  is  perhaps  need- 
less to  say. 

Home  or  special  project  work  has  the  particular  ad- 
vantage of  not  only  giving  the  student  practice  in  agri- 
cultural operations,  —  opportunities  to  apply  the  knowl- 
edge gained  in  the  schoolroom,  —  but  of  affording  also 
a  means  of  developing  his  managerial  ability.  The  se- 
curing of  products  of  one  kind  or  another  is  here  em- 
phasized above  the  mere  correctness  in  doing  different 
kinds  of  agricultural  work  which  perhaps  receives  most 
attention  in  the  practice  work  on  the  school  farm. 
Furthermore,  the  amount  of  land  and  equipment  neces- 
sary at  the  school  is  lessened,  the  cost  of  equipping  the 
school  for  agricultural  work  is  decreased,  the  student 
is  given  an  opportunity  to  do  actual  productive  work 
(the  proceeds  of  which  go  to  him  or  to  his  parents),  and 
an  ideal  opportunity  is  afforded  for  the  dissemination 
of  scientific  agricultural  knowledge  among  farmers  of 
the  community  and  for  the  trying  out  of  methods  which 
have  proved  to  be  profitable  elsewhere,  —  as,  for  exam- 
ple, at  the  state  experiment  station. 

Once  selected,  a  project  should  be  continued  to  its 
logical  close,  which  is  normally  the  production  of  some- 
thing of  market  value.  Records  of  work  should  be  kept 
by  the  student  and  neatly  written  up  for  the  agricultural 


3l8   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

teacher  supervising  his  work  at  the  completion  of  his 
project.1 

The  supervision  of  home  project  work  by  the  agri- 
cultural instructor  cannot  be  daily,  obviously,  nor  can 
it  deal  with  minute  details,  because  of  the  number  of 
farms  or  town  back  yards  involved.  Moreover,  too 
close  supervision  as  to  details  might  cause  friction  with 
parents,  and  any  appearance  of  interference  with  the 
management  of  farm  work  by  the  parents  must  be  scru- 
pulously avoided.  But  the  projects  to  be  carried  on 
should  be  chosen  largely  by  the  agricultural  teacher, 
with  the  approval  of  parents,  and  the  student  should 
be  advised  and  assisted  and  encouraged  in  his  attempts 
to  carry  out  his  project  successfully  and  in  accordance 
with  proper  methods. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  if  such  work  is  adequately 
supervised  it  must  mean  considerably  more  work  for 
the  teacher  than  where  the  practical  work  of  the  student 
is  carried  on  largely  or  entirely  on  the  school  farm  area. 
Therefore  where  home  project  work  is  undertaken, 
agricultural  teachers  should  be  relieved  of  enough  class- 
room work  to  give  proper  supervision  without  adding 
unduly  to  their  working  hours. 

On  account  of  the  necessary  variation  in  the  time 

1  In  planning  project  work  for  students,  the  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Education  Bui.  1912,  No.  5,  "Project  Study  Outlines  for  Vegetable 
Growing,"  will  be  found  suggestive. 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  319 

and  labor  required  to  carry  out  different  home  projects, 
it  is  difficult  to  give  suitable  school  credit  for  them.  To 
measure  accurately  in  credits  either  the  information 
or  vocational  value  gained  from  a  given  home  project 
is  almost  impossible.  However,  each  project  should 
receive  recognition  as  a  part  of  the  school  work,  and 
credit  should  be  based  on  the  way  in  which  the  work 
is  done,  as  observed  by  the  teacher  and  parent,  upon 
the  nature  of  the  work  and  the  time  taken  for  it,  and 
upon  the  final  written  report  of  work  which  should  be 
handed  in  by  the  pupil.  In  addition,  the  products 
resulting  from  the  project  work,  or  a  fair  proportion  of 
them,  should,  wherever  possible,  themselves  become  a 
reward  for  the  work. 

Whatever  the  project  undertaken,  a  carefully  written 
final  report  should  be  required.  In  this  should  be  given 
a  complete  discussion  of  the  problem  or  experiment 
undertaken,  the  scientific  facts  and  principles  involved, 
and  the  practical  results  accomplished.  When  the 
results  are  such  that  a  general  knowledge  of  them  is 
likely  to  prove  of  value  to  farmers  of  the  locality,  and 
the  report  is  well  written,  it  may  be  printed  in  a  local 
paper;  or  it  may  be  issued  by  the  school  as  an  agri- 
cultural bulletin,  if  funds  for  the  purpose  are  available. 

It  seems  advisable,  wherever  possible,  to  have  the  home 
project  work  accompany  and  be  a  part  of  the  several 
agricultural  courses,  —  the  training  of  the  school  thus 


320        MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

being  related  intimately  and  at  once  to  practical  affairs 
off  the  school  premises.  Yet  this  arrangement  is  not 
universally  approved  or  followed. 

In  New  York  State,  for  example,  it  is  planned  that  the 
home  project  work  form  a  separate  course,  equivalent, 
if  continued  for  a  full  year,  to  a  "five  count"  or  daily 
study  course  for  that  time.  If  covering  a  half  year, 
two  and  one-half  credits  are  given.  In  either  case  the 
summer  vacation  may  be  a  part  of  the  time  during  which 
the  work  is  carried  on. 

Perhaps  the  ideal  arrangement  is  attained  where  agri- 
cultural students  of  the  high  school  live  on  farms  and 
carry  on  home  project  work  in  connection  with  each 
of  their  school  courses.  While  the  freshman  is  studying 
the  elements  of  soils  and  plant  life,  he  has  plots  of  ground 
on  the  school  farm  where  he  applies  his  knowledge  under 
the  direction  of  his  instructor,  —  getting  practice  in 
certain  operations  or  kinds  of  work.  At  the  same  time, 
he  has  a  plot  of  ground  at  home,  preferably  parts  of  the 
kitchen  and  flower  garden,  where  he  applies  all  that  he 
has  learned  in  his  class  and  garden  at  school,  or  from 
agricultural  publications,  in  the  production  of  a  crop. 
There  his  methods  are  compared  with  his  father's  and 
those  of  neighbors.  He  may  thus  learn  certain  things 
from  them ;  and  they  may  learn  from  him.  In  the  soph- 
omore year  he  will  have  certain  practicums  at  the  school 
in  connection  with  his  animal  husbandry  work.  At  the 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  321 

same  time  he  may  have,  at  home,  training  in  caring  for 
some  of  the  animals  on  the  farm,  as  poultry,  bees,  a  horse, 
or  a  cow.  In  his  junior  year,  in  addition  to  his  school 
practicums,  he  may  carry  on  a  home  project  dealing 
with  fruit  or  vegetable  growing  or  marketing.  And  in 
his  senior  year  he  may,  in  connection  with  his  school 
study  and  practice  in  farm  mechanics  and  farm  manage- 
ment, carry  on,  as  a  home  project,  the  keeping  of  certain 
records  and  accounts,  the  repair  of  farm  machinery,  or 
other  problems. 

Thus  every  farm  from  which  a  student  comes  is  made 
a  part  of  the  working  outfit  of  the  school.  School  and 
farm  —  theory  and  practice  —  are  intimately  related. 
Each  contributes  to  the  other.1 

Unfortunately,  these  ideal  arrangements  are  frequently 
non-existent,  and  it  is  then  necessary  to  make  the  best 
of  less  favorable  conditions.  Rural  high  schools,  a  ma- 
jority of  whose  agricultural  students  come  daily  from 
farms,  are  especially  fortunate  in  their  work  because  of 
the  possibility  of  thus  combining  school  study  and  field 
exercises  with  practical  work  on  the  home  farm.  In  high 
schools  where  many  of  the  agricultural  students  come 
from  town  homes,  special  arrangements  must  be  made 
to  meet  the  practical  needs  of  the  work. 

The  home  project  work  is  perhaps  carried  further  in 

1  Smith's  Agricultural  School,  Northampton,  Mass.,  is  a  good  exam- 
ple of  schools  emphasizing  work  of  this  character. 


322        MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

the  plans  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Education 
Service  for  agricultural  departments  in  high  schools  than 
in  any  other  state  plans  so  far  outlined.  As  Mr.  R.  W. 
Stimson,  Agent  of  the  Service,  says  in  a  1911  bulletin: 
"From  the  definition  of  agricultural  education  found 
in  the  new  (Massachusetts)  law,  it  will  be  evident  that 
the  determining  factor  in  choosing  both  the  subject 
matter  and  the  methods  of  instruction  for  the  agricul- 
tural departments  must  be  productive  farming.  Work, 
therefore,  scientific  and  economic,  on  farms,  preferably 
on  the  home  farms  of  the  boys  themselves,  must  be  pro- 
vided for  throughout  the  periods  of  training.  The  produc- 
tive work  required  of  the  students  will  be  organized  into 
a  graded  series  of  individual  farming  projects.  Among 
these  each  student,  with  the  consent  of  his  parents,  will 
choose  an  approved  list  from  year  to  year.  His  agricul- 
tural education  will  then  consist  of  learning  to  glean 
from  all  possible  sources  the  scientific  knowledge  re- 
quired for  the  thorough  understanding  and  the  profitable 
execution  of  his  farming  undertakings,  when  subject, 
as  they  must  be,  to  all  the  natural  helps  and  hindrances 
of  actual  local  conditions." 

Since  summer  supervision  of  home  projects  is  neces- 
sary where  they  continue  into  or  through  the  summer  va- 
cation, and  since  in  cold  climates  this  must  usually  be  the 
case,  it  is  planned  for  the  Massachusetts  schools  that  the 
agricultural  instructor  take  his  vacation  in  winter,  super- 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  323 

vising  home  project  work  during  the  fall  and  spring  terms 
and  summer  months.  This  in  turn  necessitates  confining 
agricultural  instruction  to  the  fall  and  spring  terms  of  a 
three  term  school  year  unless  more  than  one  agricul- 
tural instructor  is  hired  by  each  school.  Whether  these 
plans  for  work  will  prove  as  satisfactory  in  practice  as 
they  are  when  described,  remains  to  be  seen.  In  states 
where  the  school  year  is  divided  into  two  terms,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  the  long  winter  vacation  for  the  agricultural 
instructor  would  not  be  practicable. 

In  addition  to  its  use  for  pupils,  the  school  farm  should 
serve  to  some  extent  as  a  demonstration  farm  for  the 
community.  Here  demonstrations  of  methods  or  prac- 
tices which  would  be  of  benefit  to  farmers  if  more  widely 
introduced  are  carried  on,  as,  for  example,  with  ferti- 
lizers and  rotations,  cover  crops,  in  the  breeding  and  selec- 
tion of  corn  and  other  cereals.  Space  is  given  to  the 
growing  of  desirable  new  plant  introductions,  —  new 
fruits,  vegetables,  and  field  crops  which  it  is  thought 
probable  may  prove  worthy  of  being  grown  for  commer- 
cial purposes  in  the  locality.  Trial  is  made  of  new  va- 
rieties of  crops  already  grown  in  the  locality,  and  the 
results  compared  with  those  attained  in  the  growth  of 
the  common  varieties,  to  determine  which  variety  it 
is  most  profitable  to  grow. 

In  the  opinion  of  some  agricultural  teachers  every 
high  school  farm  should  also  be,  in  a  sense,  an  experiment 


324        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

station,  which  may  or  may  not  be  worked  under  the 
direction  of  the  state  experiment  station.  By  some 
it  is  thought  that  the  agricultural  teacher  should, 
in  addition  to  carrying  on  regular  demonstration  and 
experimental  work  on  the  school  farm,  take  up  any  agri- 
cultural problem  with  farmers  of  the  community  at  any 
time  desired,  going  to  their  farms  and  helping  in  finding 
a  solution,  or  carrying  on  experiments  at  the  school 
farm  for  the  same  purpose.  There  is  no  doubt  that  there 
are  many  reasons  for  carrying  on  both  these  lines  of 
work.  If  the  director  of  the  agricultural  work  in  a  high 
school  has  sufficient  assistance,  in  class  and  on  the 
school  farm,  they  may  well  be  taken  up.  But  an  agri- 
cultural teacher  should  not  be  overburdened  with  work 
any  more  than  should  any  other  teacher.  In  connection 
with  special  county  and  district  agricultural  high  schools, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  considerable  experimental  work 
and  work  for  individual  farmers  should  be  carried  on. 
For  the  ordinary  town  high  school  but  little  such  work 
will  be  possible,  in  addition  to  the  practical  work  for 
students  and  the  demonstrations  for  the  benefit  of  stu- 
dents and  farmers,  unless  a  definite  amount  of  time  is 
set  aside  for  the  purpose. 

In  discussing  the  purposes  of  the  school  farm  it  has  been 
said  many  times  that  it  should  "  serve  as  a  model  for  the 
community."  It  is  true  that  it  should  be  a  model  in  so 
far  as  the  proper  care  of  plants,  animals,  and  equipment 


THE    SCHOOL  FARM  325 

is  concerned ;  but  there  it  may  cease  to  be  one.  For  the 
purpose  of  the  school  farm  is  educational  rather  than 
commercial.  Its  reason  for  existence  is  that  it  may 
serve  educational  ends,  for  pupils  and  for  the  community. 
It  is  desirable  that  the  farm  "pay," but  it  is  not  a  matter 
for  criticism  if  it  does  not.  The  primary  purposes  of 
plant  culture  and  animal  raising  on  the  school  farm  are 
educational.  Crops  are  not  grown  to  "pay."  They 
may  yield  a  profit,  it  is  true,  but  that  is  a  secondary 
consideration.  The  special  nature  and  limited  extent 
of  the  experimental  and  demonstration  plots  possible 
on  the  average  school  farm  for  educational  purposes  are 
not  such  as  to  make  a  profit  on  products  at  all  probable ; 
and  the  number  of  workers  to  be  accommodated  on  the 
farm  and  to  be  given  work  which  is  distinctly  educational 
is  unfavorable  to  the  securing  of  financial  gains. 

However,  in  the  case  of  schools  where  sufficient  land 
is  owned,  the  farm  is  sometimes  divided  into  what  may 
be  called  a  commercial  farm  and  a  demonstration  or 
educational  farm.  That  is,  a  part  of  the  school  farm  is 
run  as  a  commercial  farm,  as  a  model  or  to  meet  financial 
needs  of  the  school,  or  for  both  reasons.  In  this  case 
it  should  be  the  aim,  so  far  as  is  feasible,  to  make  the 
management,  appearance,  yields  and  profits  of  this  part 
of  the  school  farm  a  model  for  the  farmers  of  the  com- 
munity. The  care  of  crops,  animals,  and  equipment 
should  approach  the  ideal  as  nearly  as  possible.  Records 


326    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

and  accounts  should  be  carefully  kept  and  may  be  made 
known  to  the  public  regularly.  Marketing  of  products 
should  be  given  special  attention,  both  as  to  preparation 
of  products  and  their  disposition. 

It  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule,  however,  for 
a  high  school,  or  other  secondary  school  giving  agricul- 
tural courses,  to  own  a  farm  run  on  a  commercial  basis. 
The  educational  purposes  of  a  school  farm  have  been 
practically  the  only  ones  considered.  The  model  com- 
mercial farm  is,  to  be  sure,  distinctly  educational;  but 
it  is  too  large  an  educational  exhibit  for  the  ordinary 
high  school  to  undertake  to  provide.  County  or  district 
agricultural  high  schools  usually  have  more  land  than  the 
ordinary  high  school  teaching  agriculture.  They  are 
expected  to  do  more  experimental  and  demonstration 
work.  They  may  therefore  well  make  the  running  of  a 
model  commercial  farm  a  part  of  their  work.  But  for 
the  ordinary  village  or  town  high  school  this  will  always 
remain  impossible. 

The  question  of  ownership  or  rental  of  the  school  farm 
possibly  needs  no  discussion.  It  is,  obviously,  preferable 
for  the  school  to  own  its  "farm,"  that  permanent  im- 
provements, such  as  buildings,  may  be  added  as  needed, 
for  the  sake  of  long-time  experiments,  and  for  other 
reasons.  Where  this  is  for  the  time  being  impossible, 
rented  land,  located  conveniently  to  the  school  building, 
may  be  utilized.  Where  land  is  rented  it  should,  for 


THE   SCHOOL  FARM  327 

the  sake  of  experiments,  be  for  a  term  of  years  rather 
than  for  a  single  year;  yet  the  very  fact  that  land  is 
rented  for  a  considerable  time  may  sometimes  prevent 
a  school  board  from  purchasing  a  desirable  tract  when 
available. 

Perhaps  no  point  concerning  the  school  farm  is  more 
disputed  than  its  proper  size.  One  agricultural  writer  1 
states  that  the  large  rural  school  should  have  from  one 
to  three  acres,  and  a  consolidated  rural  school  or  agri- 
cultural high  school  five  to  ten  acres.  Another  states 
that  for  a  high  school  where  boys  go  daily  to  their  farm 
homes,  where  they  are  expected  to  carry  their  school 
lessons  for  application,  ten  acres  should  provide  all  of 
the  necessary  space  for  the  agricultural  purposes  of  the 
school,  including  "  building  site,  playground,  athletic 
fields,  stables,  agriculturist's  cottage  and  private  grounds, 
field  demonstration  plots,  and,  possibly,  school  gardens 
and  students'  projects."  2 

Where  in  one  case  a  school  farm  of  perhaps  more  than 
twenty  acres  may  be  very  well  utilized  in  connection 
with  the  agricultural  work  of  a  high  school,  possibly 
four  acres  prove  more  than  are  used  to  advantage  in 
another. 

And  though,  as  we  have  said,  the  general  agreement 
is  that  the  high  school  should  own  some  land  for  practi- 

1  Row,  R.  K.,  "Educational  Meaning  of  the  Manual  Arts,"  p.  226. 
1  Main,  Josiah,  "  Educational  Agriculture,"  p.  64. 


328        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


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io 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  329 

cums  and  demonstration  purposes,  yet  the  New  York 
State  Education  Department  bulletins  on  agriculture 
in  the  high  school  so  far  quite  ignore  the  subject  of  land 
equipment  in  discussing  the  work.  In  fact,  it  seems  to 
be  implied  that  the  ordinary  high  school  will  have  little 
if  any  land  for  such  purposes.  It  is  true  that  the  value 
of  home  project  work  is  urged  and  that  a  suitable 
amount  of  this  may  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  practi- 
cal work  on  a  school  farm.  Yet  it  is  doubtful  if 
a  certain  amount  of  work  on  a  school  farm  can  be 
entirely  dispensed  with. 

In  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  and  State 
publications  on  high  school  agriculture  the  need  of  a 
school  farm  is  also  given  little  attention,  though  it  is 
stated  in  Michigan  Agricultural  College  Department  of 
Agricultural  Education  Bulletin  No.  7  that  each  high 
school  teaching  agriculture  should  have  one-half  to 
one  acre  of  land  for  an  experimental  plot  and  for  in- 
struction in  seeding  and  plant  culture.  However,  in 
Michigan,  too,  home  work  and  working  trips  to  vine- 
yards, fields,  and  barns  of  the  community  are  given 
especial  attention. 

Yet  that  some  sort  of  school  farm  is  imperative  as  a 
part  of  the  equipment  of  the  high  school  that  teaches 
agriculture,  may  probably  be  safely  asserted,  notwith- 
standing the  lack  of  emphasis  placed  on  the  ownership 
and  use  of  land  by  high  schools  teaching  agriculture  in 


330    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

these  two  states.  The  farm  need  not  be  large  anc 
costly  for  the  ordinary  high  school,  but  it  should  not  b< 
entirely  omitted  in  equipping  the  school  for  agricultura 
work. 

In  determining  the  size  desirable  for  the  school  farn 
in  any  given  case,  various  factors  must  be  considered 
Among  these  are  the  nature  of  the  agricultural  course; 
given  in  the  high  school,  the  number  of  agricultural  stu 
dents,  the  price  of  land  per  acre,  and  the  equipment  anc 
labor  available  for  the  care  and  management  of  the  land 
In  the  case  of  county  and  district  or  other  special  agri 
cultural  high  schools  it  will  also  be  necessary,  in  deter 
mining  the  amount  of  land  which  will  be  needed,  to  de 
cide  as  to  whether  the  farm  is  intended  merely  to  serv< 
the  educational  needs  of  the  school  or  whether  a  part  o 
it  is  to  be  used  as  a  sub-experiment  station  for  the  gooc 
of  the  community  and  as  an  aid  in  the  work  of  the  stat< 
experiment  station;  whether  it  is  to  be  used  for  thes< 
purposes  alone,  or  a  part  is  to  be  worked  for  commercia 
purposes,  to  serve  as  a  model  farm  or  to  help  pay  th< 
expenses  of  maintaining  the  school.  In  the  ordinary 
town  or  village  high  school,  where  the  farm  is  for  instruc 
tional  and  demonstration  purposes  alone,  these  las 
points  need  not  be  considered. 

The  size  desirable  for  the  farm  depends  upon  the  siz< 
of  the  high  school  —  the  number  of  pupils  —  to  a  lesi 
extent  than  might  be  expected.  This  should  be  con 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  33! 

sidered,  it  is  true,  but  is  a  matter  of  minor  importance. 
In  fact,  in  many  cases  it  may  be  desirable  for  the  small 
school,  on  account  of  its  location,  community  interests, 
etc.,  to  have  a  larger  farm  than  the  large  school.  What 
is  too  small  a  farm  for  one  school  or  locality  may  be 
too  large  for  another,  perhaps  differing  from  it  but 
little  in  the  number  of  students.  A  plot  of  land  which 
serves  very  well  the  agricultural  needs  of  a  large  town 
or  city  high  school  may  be  quite  inadequate  for  the  agri- 
cultural work  of  a  rural  high  school. 

In  a  way,  the  question  is  one  of  utilization.  A  school 
should  have  in  its  school  farm  as  much  land  as  that 
particular  school,  with  its  definite  aims  and  needs, 
can  utilize  profitably  and  fully.  It  should  not  have 
more. 

The  farm  should  not  be  too  large  to  be  kept  in  perfect 
condition  by  the  labor  of  students  and  the  instructor 
and  that  which  can  be  hired.  And  it  should  not  be 
so  small  that  it  does  not  furnish  a  suitable  amount  and 
variety  of  agricultural  practicum  work  for  the  agricultural 
courses  taught  in  the  high  school.  However,  this 
"suitable  amount"  depends  to  no  small  degree  on  how 
much  home  or  special  project  work  is  arranged  for,  away 
from  the  school  grounds. 

The  equipment  for  a  school  farm  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes,  —  buildings,  implements  and  machines,  and 
live  stock.  The  nature  and  extent  of  the  equipment  in 


332        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

each  case  depends  upon  many  factors,  such  as  the  size 
of  the  school  farm,  agricultural  courses  given  in  the 
school,  experimental  work  planned,  and  provisions  as  to 
the  management  of  the  farm  and  the  labor  to  be  done 
on  it.  It  is,  obviously,  impossible  to  discuss  it  with  any 
definiteness  except  in  relation  to  particular  schools  and 
circumstances. 

Yet  there  are  certain  things  that  should  be  included 
in  the  farm  equipment  of  every  high  school  teaching  four 
years  of  agriculture.  There  should  be  a  greenhouse  or 
lath-house  for  plant  propagation  work;  a  farm  shop, 
for  practical  work  in  farm  mechanics ;  a  place  to  house 
tools  and  machines;  and  a  storeroom  for  seeds,  ferti- 
lizers, and  other  materials.  The  shop  and  tool  and  ma- 
chine room  may  be  in  one  building,  separate  from  the 
main  building,  —  though  possibly  forming  a  part  of  a 
manual  training  building.  The  storeroom  may  also 
perhaps  best  be  in  this  building,  though  it  is  not  objec- 
tionable to  have  it  in  a  basement  room  of  the  main  school 
building,  provided  it  has  an  outdoor  entrance  and  is 
conveniently  situated  and  arranged.  If  necessary, 
provision  may  be  made  in  the  main  building  for  the  shop 
and  machine  rooms,  though  this  is  seldom  if  ever  advis- 
able if  it  can  be  avoided. 

Where  pumping  is  necessary  for  irrigation  purposes, 
a  pump  and  engine  house  must  be  provided.  In  any 
case,  there  must  be  suitable  provision  for  a  water  supply 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  333 

for  the  school  farm,  either  from  wells,  irrigation  ditches, 
or  a  town  water  supply  system. 

Where  live  stock  is  kept,  provision  must  be  made  for 
its  housing.  On  a  small  school  farm,  of  an  acre  or  two, 
it  is  evident  that  but  little  live  stock  can  be  kept.  How- 
ever, even  on  a  small  tract,  poultry  and  bees  may  be  kept 
if  they  are  of  sufficient  importance  in  the  community  to 
be  taught  in  the  school.  For  the  work  of  a  small  farm 
a  man  and  horse  may  be  hired  by  the  day  when 
needed.  As  the  amount  of  land  is  increased,  it  be- 
comes advisable  for  the  school  to  own  horses  to  work 
the  place.  Where  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  feed 
necessary  for  stock  can  be  raised  on  the  farm,  cows 
should  be  added. 

It  is  of  course  impossible  for  the  ordinary  high  school 
to  equip  its  farm  with  enough  live  stock  for  illustrative 
purposes  in  connection  with  the  animal  husbandry  and 
dairy  courses.  The  farms  of  the  community  must  be 
turned  to  for  many  illustrations  and  lessons.  But  it 
will  be  found  of  advantage  to  have  some  of  the  larger 
farm  stock  on  the  farm  if  they  can  be  economically  ac- 
commodated and  fed,  even  though  the  number  be  very 
limited. 

In  a  few  sections  it  has  been  recommended  that  milk 
goats  take  the  place  of  cows  on  the  small  school  farm. 
But  this  would  probably  not  prove  advisable  in  the 
majority  of  cases. 


334         MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

When  horses  and  cows  are  owned  by  the  school  a  barn 
becomes  necessary ;  and  where  any  live  stock  is  kept 
on  the  farm,  with  the  possible  exception  of  poultry  and 
bees,  there  should  also  be  a  house  for  the  agricultural 
teacher  or  farm  superintendent.  Respect  for  public 
property  is  not,  unfortunately,  universal.  It  is  therefore 
well  for  some  one  who  takes  a  personal  interest  in  the 
school  farm  property  to  live  on  the  farm  as  soon  as  il 
goes  beyond  the  school  garden  size  and  the  equipmenl 
includes  buildings,  implements,  and  stock. 

When  the  work  of  the  farm  is  done  by  students  wit! 
the  assistance  of  occasional  labor  hired  by  the  day 
the  agricultural  teacher  should  live  in  the  school  fanr 
house.  When  the  farm  becomes  large  enough  so  thai 
it  is  necessary  to  hire  a  farm  superintendent  by  the  year 
he  should  live  on  the  school  farm. 

The  machines  and  implements  belonging  to  the  schoo 
farm  equipment  should  be  carefully  selected  to  meel 
the  needs  of  the  farm  work  and  student  field  practicums 
There  should  be  no  waste  of  money  for  unnecessar) 
costly  machines,  yet  the  equipment  should  be  as  com 
plete  and  up-to-date  as  possible.  Extravagance  shoulc 
be  avoided  in  purchasing  this  part  of  the  farm  equip 
ment  just  as  much  as  in  purchasing  laboratory  apparatus 
yet  the  school  farm  machines  and  tools  are  partly  fo] 
illustrative  and  educational  purposes  as  well  as  for  th( 
doing  of  certain  kinds  of  work.  Some  implements  which 


THE   SCHOOL  FARM  33$ 

though  useful,  could  be  dispensed  with  under  other  con- 
ditions may,  therefore,  be  bought  for  the  school  farm. 
Garden  tools  will  be  necessary  for  every  school  farm; 
the  other  tools  and  machines  to  be  purchased  will  depend 
on  the  size  of  the  farm,  courses  given  in  the  school, 
and  various  local  conditions. 

The  equipment  in  land,  buildings,  implements,  and 
stock  should  be  determined  only  after  careful  thought  and 
consideration  of  the  special  local  conditions  and  needs. 
It  should  be  adequate,  since  good  work  cannot  be  done 
without  proper  equipment ;  but,  though  ample,  it  should 
not  be  extravagant.  It  is  far  better  to  begin  with  a 
small  farm  and  equipment  and  to  increase  as  need  de- 
mands than  to  burden  the  agricultural  work  with  any 
land  which  cannot  be  properly  equipped  and  cared  for, 
or  with  equipment  that  cannot  be  utilized  at  the  start. 

Having  provided  a  school  farm,  adequately  equipped, 
provision  must  be  made  for  its  care  and  management 
both  during  the  school  year  and  the  summer  vacation. 
One  great  defect  in  the  agricultural  work  in  the  ordinary 
high  schools  so  far  has  been  the  lack  of  care  of  the  school 
agricultural  grounds  during  a  most  important  period, 
-the  summer  vacation.  Agricultural  teachers,  like 
others,  have  been  hired  for  the  school  year  only,  and  at 
its  close  have  left  for  vacation  trips  or  to  go  to  new  fields 
of  labor.  The  care  of  demonstration  and  other  plots 
has  been  left  to  the  irregular  and  voluntary  care  of  stu- 


336    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

dents  or  to  occasional  and  usually  uninterested  hired 
labor.  Demonstration  plots  then  become  a  bad  rather 
than  a  good  lesson  to  the  community,  and  projects 
started  during  one  year  fail  to  be  carried  over  to  the 
next.  To  prevent  this  undesirable  condition,  some  one 
vitally  interested,  and  paid  for  the  work,  should  be  in 
charge  of  the  farm  during  the  summer  months. 

In  the  case  of  the  small  school  farm  the  summer  care 
and  management  will  naturally  fall  upon  the  person  in 
charge  of  the  agricultural  department  of  the  school. 
He  should  therefore  be  hired  by  the  year,  and  the  care 
of  the  farm  should  devolve  upon  him  during  the  summer 
vacation  period.  Since  this  brings  to  him,  as  it  must, 
increased  salary,  and  probably  the  use  of  a  residence 
on  the  grounds,  there  should  be  little  if  any  objection 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  the  increase  in  service  de- 
manded. If  a  part  of  the  grounds  can  be  given  to  the 
agriculturist  for  personal  use,  or  if  he  is  allowed  a  part 
of  the  farm  products,  it  will  also  add  to  the  desirabil- 
ity of  the  work.  However,  the  agricultural  teacher  in 
charge  should  not  be  unduly  burdened  with  manual 
labor  either  during  the  summer  or  at  any  other 
time.  A  suitable  amount  of  hired  labor  should  be 
provided. 

Where  there  is  more  than  one  agricultural  teacher,  the 
vacation  service  and  care  of  the  farm  may  be  divided  if 
desired. 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  337 

In  the  case  of  the  county,  district,  and  special  agricul- 
tural high  schools,  having  farms  of  considerable  extent, 
where  a  farm  superintendent  is  hired  by  the  year,  the 
agricultural  teachers  may  all,  if  desired,  be  allowed 
the  regular  summer  vacation,  the  farm  superintendent 
taking  entire  charge  and  care  of  the  farm  for  that  time, 
though  of  course  carrying  out  the  plans  of  the  director 
of  the  agricultural  work  of  the  school.  An  ordinary 
high  school  farm  will  perhaps  not  usually  be  of  suf- 
ficient size  for  a  farm  superintendent  to  be  hired  by 
the  year. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  amount  of  work  which  may 
properly  be  required  from  students  on  the  school  farm. 
In  the  special,  county,  and  district  agricultural  high 
schools  a  much  greater  amount  of  time  may  be  devoted 
to  such  work  than  in  the  ordinary  high  school. 

Where  there  is  a  model  commercial  school  farm,  the 
work  on  the  farm  may  be  done  partly  by  students,  as 
practice  work,  and  partly  by  men  regularly  employed. 
In  any  case  the  work  here  should  be  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  a  superintendent,  to  whom  the  agricul- 
tural instructor  or  instructors  make  known  what  practice 
work  they  would  like  to  have  students  do,  and  he  ar- 
ranges for  it  as  suits  the  farm  work  best.  Where  stu- 
dent practice  does  not  "fit  in"  with  the  plan  of  work 
for  the  commercial  school  farm,  this  should  be  arranged 
for  on  the  "educational"  part  of  the  farm. 


338         MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


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THE    SCHOOL  FARM  339 

A  plan  somewhat  like  this  is  followed  in  the  New  York 
State  School  of  Agriculture,  at  Canton,  N.  Y.,  where, 
as  Dean  Cook  tells  us  in  a  letter,  the  "  school  farm  is 
divided  into  a  commercial  farm  and  a  demonstration 
farm,  each  separate  from  the  other.  The  farms  are  under 
the  immediate  supervision  of  a  superintendent.  The 
work  is  done  partly  by  students  and  partly  by  men  regu- 
larly employed,  student  work  predominating.  Before  the 
close  of  the  school  year,  students  work  alternate  days; 
that  is,  from  the  time  the  land  is  workable.  After  school 
closes,  students  are  paid  wages  for  their  work.  The  stu- 
dents who  remain  with  us  during  the  summer  are  those 
who  are  especially  adapted  and  whose  scholarship  is 
high.  The  relationship  of  the  instructor  is  indirect 
through  the  superintendent  to  the  workers.  The  super- 
intendent is  employed  by  the  year,  beginning  September 
first.  He  lives  on  the  school  farm,  and  his  home  is  fur- 
nished free." 

In  the  ordinary  high  school  it  does  not  seem  wise  to 
require  more  time  and  labor  from  the  student  for  farm 
work,  aside  from  special  projects  for  individual  pupils, 
than  is  covered  by  the  class  practicum  periods.  Empha- 
sis must,  however,  be  placed  on  the  fact  that  there  must 
be  special  project  work  along  all  lines  of  instruction, 
on  the  school  farm,  at  home,  or  elsewhere,  or  this  arrange- 
ment will  not  give  students  sufficient  practical  work. 
Additional  student  labor  may  be  hired,  or  else  should 


340        MATERIALS   AND  METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


d 

l§ 


THE    SCHOOL  FARM  341 

be  given  voluntarily  by  students.  In  some  schools  it 
is  the  practice  to  set  aside  a  day  or  two  during  the  school 
year  for  a  general  farm  "house-cleaning,"  when  all  of 
the  time  of  students  is  given  to  this  special  task.  In 
most  cases  this  is  looked  forward  to  with  eagerness  as  an 
interesting  variation  in  the  program.  When,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case,  the  domestic  science  department  or 
the  girls  of  the  school  furnish  a  mid-day  lunch  as  a  part 
of  the  program  of  the  day,  it  does  not  lessen  the  general 
enthusiasm. 

The  cost  of  a  school  farm  includes  the  initial  purchase 
price  of  land  and  equipment,  and  the  cost  of  mainte- 
nance. In  the  case  of  a  commercial  farm  the  cost  of 
running  the  farm  is  supposed  to  be  but  a  fraction  of  the 
profits  yielded  by  it.  In  case  of  the  school  farm  the  cost 
of  maintenance  is  very  likely  to  be  considerably  more 
than  the  amount  of  receipts  from  products. 

Both  initial  cost  and  the  cost  of  running  the  school 
farm  differ  widely  even  for  farms  of  about  the  same  size. 
Location,  projects  undertaken,  availability  of  labor, 
efficiency  in  management,  and  many  other  factors  have 
to  be  reckoned  with.  Beyond  a  certain  point,  neither 
the  size  nor  cost  of  the  farm  and  its  maintenance  seems 
to  bear  much  relation  to  efficiency  in  the  school  work 
accomplished.  The  farm  and  its  equipment  must  be 
adequate  for  certain  purposes,  determined  partly  by 
courses  of  instruction  and  partly  by  local  conditions. 


342        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  343 

Increases  beyond  that  point  seem  to  have  little  effect 
upon  the  value  of  the  agricultural  instruction  of  the 
school.  Excellent  work  is  done  in  schools  having  farms 
of  considerable  size ;  but  equally  good  work  is  frequently 
done  in  schools  having  much  smaller  farms. 

Comparatively  few  figures  are  obtainable  as  to  the 
cost  of  agricultural  grounds,  their  equipment  and  main- 
tenance, for  the  ordinary  high  school.  If  a  large  number 
of  accurate  statements  as  to  these  points,  for  high  schools 
in  different  parts  of  the  country,  could  be  collected,  it 
would  be  of  great  advantage  to  those  planning  the  in- 
troduction of  agriculture  in  other  schools.  But  the  few 
statistics  which  we  can  secure  at  present,  with  their  in- 
complete and  approximate  figures,  are  of  comparatively 
little  value. 

Though  there  is  a  fairly  general  agreement  as  to  the  pur- 
poses which  the  school  farm  should  serve,  its  utilization 
naturally  varies  greatly.  In  one,  the  demonstration 
plots  for  the  benefit  of  farmers  may  be  emphasized ;  in 
another  they  may  be  given  little  attention.  In  one  case 
considerable  individual  plot  work  is  carried  on  by  stu- 
dents on  the  school  farm ;  in  another,  such  work  is  largely 
carried  on  at  home.  Experimental  plots  may  be  a  fea- 
ture on  one  farm,  while  on  another  they  are  conspicuous 
largely  by  their  absence.  The  crops  grown  differ  in 
different  localities.  The  arrangement  of  the  farm  is 
influenced  by  many  factors. 


344   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  345 

However,  in  making  plans  it  is  helpful  to  note  and  com- 
pare high  school  farm  plans  which  have  been  found  sat- 
isfactory in  different  places.  Three  of  these  are  de- 
scribed and  illustrated  here,  —  one  a  2\ -acre  farm,  at 
Oxnard,  California ;  a  second  a  i4-acre  high  school  farm, 
at  Gardena,  California;  and  the  third  a  2y-acre  farm,  at 
Bakersfield,  California. 

The  Oxnard  school  farm  of  i\  acres  is  located  across 
the  street  from  the  high  school,  within  the  city  limits 
of  a  town  located  in  the  center  of  one  of  the  richest  agri- 
cultural regions  in  California.  It  was  purchased  and 
equipped  at  a  cost  of  a  little  less  than  $4000.  Of  this, 
$2474.45  was  paid  for  the  land.  About  $250  was  spent 
on  buildings,  including  a  glass-house,  lath-house,  and 
a  mushroom  house.  The  cost  of  leveling  and  fencing 
the  land  and  of  a  well  for  irrigation  purposes  amounted 
to  nearly  $900.  The  rest  of  the  sum  expended  went  for 
tools,  seeds,  plants,  fertilizers,  labor,  etc. 

The  farm  is  managed  by  the  one  agricultural  teacher 
of  the  school,  and  the  work  is  done  by  students  as  prac- 
tice work  and  by  the  two  school  janitors.  The  agricul- 
tural teacher  is  hired  only  for  the  school  year,  the  jani- 
tors caring  for  the  "farm"  during  the  vacation.  The 
crops  grown  and  the  location  of  buildings,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  greenhouse  which  is  across  the  street  on  the 
school  building  grounds,  are  indicated  on  the  farm  plan 
here  given. 


346 


MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 


THE    SCHOOL  FARM  347 

The  Gardena,  California,  high  school  farm  consists  of 
14  acres  (which  it  is  expected  to  double  very  soon). 
The  soil  is  largely  a  clayey  loam,  rather  shallow,  and  with 
hard  pan  beneath.  An  irrigation  system  is  installed, 
and  most  of  the  land  is  ready  for  irrigation. 

Mr.  C.  F.  Palmer,  director  of  the  agricultural  work 
up  to  July,  1912,  states  that  the  students  do  as  much  of 
the  farm  work  as  is  possible  in  class  practice  work  pe- 
riods. In  addition,  a  farmer  is  hired  by  the  year  and  an 
assistant  farmer  for  a  part  of  the  time.  These  do  all 
the  work  of  the  farm  during  the  summer. 

The  agricultural  instructors  (in  horticulture  and  farm 
crops,  animal  husbandry,  and  farm  mechanics)  super- 
intend their  own  phases  of  work  on  the  school  farm 
throughout  the  year. 

The  land  value  of  the  school's  equipment  is  estimated 
at  $25,000.  The  buildings  include  a  house  and  barn, 
lath-house,  pump  house,  glass-house,  and  blacksmith 
shop.  The  cost  of  maintaining  the  farm  is  estimated  at 
about  $1200  per  year,  and  it  is  not  expected  that  the 
farm  should  ever  maintain  itself. 

At  Bakersfield,  California,  the  farm  of  27  acres, 
located  within  easy  access  to  the  high  school,  was 
purchased  at  a  cost  of  $  16,000.  The  soil  is  a  rich 
sediment,  underlaid  in  places  with  sand.  The  installa- 
tion of  a  pumping  plant  upon  the  farm  cost  $675,  and  a 
ten-inch  irrigation  system  cost  $700.  Machinery  and 


348        MATERIALS    AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 


70JV/V  >V/^// 

PVBL/C   ffO/ID 


PLAN  or  SCHOOL  GROUNDS,  SHOWING  MINIATURES  OF  FARMS  IN 

THE  NEIGHBORHOOD. 
(From  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Cir.  84.) 


THE    SCHOOL  FARM  349 

tools  cost  between  $700  and  $800.  The  buildings  in- 
clude a  dwelling,  machine  shed,  poultry  houses,  and  an  in- 
cubator and  brooder  house.  The  dwelling  and  machine 
shed  were  on  the  land  when  purchased.  The  other 
buildings  are  worth  about  $400.  It  is  planned  to  ex- 
pend about  $1500  for  stock,  including  poultry,  registered 
mares,  and  other  animals.  The  farm  is  also  to  be 
equipped  with  a  small  herd  of  the  best  dairy  cows,  a 
well-furnished  dairy,  and  other  buildings. 

The  agricultural  instructor  lives  in  the  farm  dwelling 
and  supervises  the  farm  work  throughout  the  year, 
keeping  records  of  all  expenditures  and  receipts,  plant- 
ings, breeding,  etc.  Two  men  are  hired  regularly  for 
the  work  of  the  farm.  Mr.  H.  F.  Tout,  the  director  of 
the  agricultural  work  of  the  school,  estimates  that  stu- 
dents do  about  one-tenth  of  the  farm  work. 

The  annual  cost  of  maintaining  the  farm  is  esti- 
mated at  from  $1500  to  $2000.  The  annual  receipts, 
so  the  agriculturist  states,  "are  not  a  consideration 
as  yet." 

In  considering  the  planning  of  the  school  agricultural 
grounds,  the  idea  of  utilizing  a  part  of  them  for  the  rep- 
resentation of  farms  in  miniature,  as  set  forth  in  the 
suggested  plans  for  a  lo-acre  farm  for  a  rural  consolidated 
school  in  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Circular  84,  is 
interesting.  Two  such  plans  are  here  illustrated. 
Whether  it  would  be  advisable  for  the  ordinary  high 


350   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 


3O  ffoos 


PUB  L/C    POAD 


MINIATITRE  FARMS  ON  THE  SCHOOL  GROUNDS. 
(From  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Cir.  84.) 


THE    SCHOOL   FARM  351 

school  to  utilize  any  of  its  land  for  miniature  farms 
seems  open  to  question. 

Whatever  the  crops  grown  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
school  farm,  the  use  of  land  by  the  ordinary  high  school 
should  be  distinctly  educational  and  adapted  to  the  in- 
structional work  of  the  school.  The  majority  of  schools 
have,  up  to  the  present  time,  made  too  little  profitable 
use  of  land  from  a  pedagogical  standpoint.  Special, 
county,  and  district  agricultural  high  schools  seem  to 
need  particular  warning  against  the  use  of  land  for  show 
purposes  only.  There  have  been,  in  connection  with 
such  schools,  too  many  farms  whose  major  purpose  was 
to  please  the  eyes  of  the  people  who  might  see  them  and 
to  make  the  farm  a  means  of  drawing  appropriations  from 
the  several  political  bodies  managing  the  financial  affairs 
of  the  institution.  The  use  of  school  land  for  purposes 
which  cannot  be  defended  from  the  standpoint  of  useful 
teaching  and  practical  educational  demonstration  is  detri- 
mental to  the  agricultural  work  of  a  school,  and  should 
not  be  permitted. 

PRACTICUM 

Plan  and  map  to  a  scale  a  school  farm  for  use  in  con- 
nection with  the  work  of  a  high  school  giving  a  four-year 
agricultural  course.  Describe  the  equipment  needed  in 
buildings,  stock,  tools,  and  machines.  Discuss  crops  to 
be  grown  and  provision  to  be  made  for  the  care  and  man- 
agement of  the  farm. 


352    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Give  reasons  for  your  decision  as  to  the  proper  size  of 
the  farm,  the  equipment  needed,  crops  to  be  grown,  and 
care  and  management. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

Agricultural  Project  Study.  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education 
Bui.,  1912,  No.  4. 

MAIN,  JOSIAH.  Educational  Agriculture.  Chapter  14.  Western 
State  Normal  School  (Hays,  Kansas)  Bui.  v.  2,  No.  3. 
1910. 

STIMSON,  R.  W.  The  Vocational  Agricultural  School;  with 
Special  Emphasis  on  Part-time  Work  in  Agriculture.  Na- 
tional Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  Eleventh  Year- 
book. 1912.  Part  2,  pp.  22-53. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHER 

THE  introduction  of  agricultural  instruction  in  the 
public  schools  is  now  encouraged  in  practically  every 
state  of  the  Union.  In  many  states  it  is  required  by 
law  in  the  elementary  schools.  In  a  number  of  states 
legislation  has  been  enacted  whereby  substantial  aid 
is  given  to  high  schools  introducing  agriculture.  The 
economic  need  and  educational  value  of  instruction  in 
agriculture  is  recognized.  Throughout  the  country 
there  is  an  increasing  demand  for  teachers  of  agriculture. 

All  this  is  well  and  good ;  but  if  agricultural  instruc- 
tion is  to  be  effective,  —  if  it  is  to  live  up  to  the  promises 
that  have  been  made  for  it, —  we  must  have  efficient 
agricultural  teachers.  If  untrained  teachers,  poorly 
informed  as  to  agricultural  principles  and  practice,  are 
allowed  to  teach  in  our  schools,  they  will,  inevitably,  do 
harm  to  the  cause  of  agricultural  education.  The  value 
of  agricultural  instruction  will  be  greatly  lessened,  and 
even  those  students  to  whom  good  agricultural  training 
would  be  most  useful  will  be  prejudiced  against  it. 

In  the  high  school  it  is  especially  necessary  that  the 
agricultural  teacher  not  only  have  agricultural  knowl- 

2A  353 


354        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

edge,  but  the  ability  to  impart  that  knowledge.  In  th 
college,  persistent  students  may  gain  information  i 
spite  of  the  poor  methods  of  presentation  that  ar 
all  too  common.  In  both  the  high  school  and  th 
elementary  school  it  is  of  the  greatest  importanc 
that  the  teacher  should  not  only  know  the  facts  c 
agriculture,  but  the  best  means  and  methods  of  pre 
sen  ting  them. 

The  normal  schools  are  now  endeavoring  to  prepar 
teachers  to  give  agricultural  instruction  in  the  elementar 
schools.  How  well  or  how  ill  this  is  done  as  yet  it  i 
not  our  province  to  discuss.  Graduates  of  the  norrm 
schools  have  not,  ordinarily,  sufficient  education  c 
training  to  teach  in  the  high  schools.  For  teachers  fc 
the  secondary  schools  we  must  look  to  the  colleges. 

Unfortunately,  the  number  of  agricultural  graduate 
of  colleges  is  as  yet  small  as  compared  with  the  graduate 
in  other  lines,  as,  for  example,  English,  or  history,  c 
languages.  The  majority  of  these  agricultural  graduate 
either  become  instructors  in  colleges  or  go  out  to  tr 
their  hands  at  some  line  of  practical,  scientific  farminj 
The  high  school  administrator  has,  therefore,  few  t 
select  from.  Of  these  few,  perhaps  all  have  sufficien 
technical  knowledge,  but  only  a  small  remnant  are  prop 
erly  qualified  for  the  special  work  of  teaching. 

As  a  result,  in  response  to  the  demand  for  agriculture 
instruction  and  in  recognition  of  its  value,  science  teachei 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHER    355 

with  no  technical  agricultural  training,  or  agricultural  col- 
lege graduates  with  no  knowledge  of  teaching  methods,  are 
too  frequently  found  giving  agricultural  instruction  in 
the  high  school.  Or,  still  worse,  we  sometimes  find  a 
teacher  whose  chief  qualification  seems  to  be  that  "he 
was  brought  up  on  a  farm." 

The  work  given  by  teachers  of  either  of  these  three 
classes  is  almost  always  disappointing. 

The  agricultural  graduate  who  knows  only  technical 
agriculture  is  apt  to  select  and  to  present  his  materials 
for  instruction  in  an  unpedagogic,  unsystematic  way,  — 
often  "above  the  heads"  of  his  students.  He  over- 
emphasizes the  particular  phases  of  agriculture  in  which 
he  is  most  interested.  If  the  school  work  is  too  special- 
ized and  technical,  students  are  discouraged  at  the 
start.  If  the  agricultural  teacher  lacks  general  culture, 
the  educated  people  of  the  community  are  apt  to  lose 
respect  for  both  him  and  his  work. 

The  pure  science  man  fails  in  his  agricultural  teaching 
because  he  lacks  a  proper  viewpoint  in  his  work ;  he  is 
apt  to  be  out  of  touch  with  the  various  agencies  of  agri- 
cultural education ;  and  he  is  almost  always  lacking  in 
practical  farm  knowledge  and  experience. 

The  man  whose  sole  qualification  is  that  he  was 
brought  up  on  a  farm  may  know  ordinary  farm  practice, 
but  he  does  not  know  its  why  and  wherefores.  He  falls 
into  errors  in  practice  because  he  does  not  understand 


356        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

the  scientific  basis  of  agriculture ;  he  does  not  know  tl 
principles  of  agriculture. 

With  such  teachers  as  these,  agricultural  instructio 
fails  in  its  aim.  Both  subject  and  teacher  gain  but  i 
repute  with  pupils,  with  the  high  school  teaching  forc< 
and  in  the  community  at  large.  Instruction  read 
disastrously  on  the  very  movement  it  is  intended  t 
promote,  and  the  cause  of  agricultural  education  suffei 
through  those  whose  greatest  interest  should  be  in  prc 
moting  it.1 

If  we  are  to  have  efficient,  competent  teachers  c 
agriculture  in  the  high  school,  they  must  be  properl 

1  "One  of  the  cardinal  difficulties  in  the  organization  of  agricultur; 
education  is  the  lack  of  trained  teachers.  Teachers  who  have  grown  u 
in  the  normal  schools  or  those  who  go  into  the  profession  from  college 
and  high  schools  without  a  normal  training,  very  seldom  have  practics 
experience  adequate  to  give  them  a  comprehension  of  farm  problem 
On  the  other  hand,  those  who  have  practical  experience  find  it  difficult  t 
secure  the  scientific  training  which  is  necessary  to  make  instruction  i 
farming  sufficiently  advanced  to  justify  calling  it  a  science.  The  gradi 
ates  of  agricultural  colleges  are  either  so  much  in  demand  for  practice 
positions,  or  so  poorly  qualified  for  the  special  work  of  teaching,  that  the 
do  not  enter  upon  the  teaching  profession  after  they  complete  the: 
agricultural  course.  The  result  of  this  whole  situation  is  that  there  ai 
many  efforts  being  made  to  teach  agriculture  from  textbooks,  and  thes 
efforts  are  being  criticized  by  practical  people  and  educators  alike  as  to 
abstract.  In  other  quarters  instruction  lacks  that  systematic  an 
progressive  character  which  can  come  only  from  the  study  of  the  science 
upon  which  farming  must  ultimately  rest.  Practical  farmers  are  n 
better  teachers  than  the  abstract  students  of  textbooks."  —  C.  M.  Judc 
Introduction  to  B.  M.  Davis,  "  Agricultural  Education,"  p.  3. 


THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURAL   TEACHER         357 

prepared  for  their  work.  They  must  be  thorough 
scientists,  technically  educated  agriculturists,  practical 
farmers,  and  trained  teachers. 

The  preparation  of  an  agricultural  teacher  should  in- 
clude, first  of  all,  a  thorough  grounding  in  the  elementary 
principles  of  science,  a  detailed  technical  study  of  agri- 
culture, and  a  certain  amount  of  training  in  farm  prac- 
tice. It  should  include  study  of  rural  sociology  and  agri- 
cultural economics.  And  it  should  include  enough  other 
work  to  give  insight  into  different  fields  of  knowledge 
and  avoid  over-specialization. 

Along  professional  lines  it  should  include  some  study 
of  the  history  of  education,  especially  agricultural  educa- 
tion, and  of  the  place  and  purpose  of  agriculture  in  the 
high  school;  a  general  study  of  the  principles  of  edu- 
cation ;  of  educational  psychology ;  and  of  school  man- 
agement. Lastly,  it  should  include  special  study  of 
methods  of  teaching  agriculture  in  secondary  schools, 
and  observation  and  practice  teaching  of  agriculture 
with  secondary  pupils. 

That  the  teacher  of  agriculture  in  the  high  school  needs 
a  detailed  and  specialized  knowledge  of  his  subject  is 
unquestioned.  The  preparation  necessary  for  the  high 
school  teacher  of  other  subjects,  such  as  history,  Latin, 
and  mathematics,  includes,  by  common  consent,  univer- 
sity or  collegiate  training  in  his  specialty.  This  necessity 
is  no  less  for  the  teacher  of  agriculture.  In  fact,  univer- 


358    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

sity  training  is  probably  more  essential  for  him.  For 
it  is  usually  expected  of  an  agricultural  teacher  that  he 
not  only  give  instruction  to  his  pupils,  but  that  his  in- 
fluence and  activities  extend  outside  of  the  school, 
reaching  the  farming  population  in  the  community.  It 
is  agreed  by  agricultural  educators  that,  if  possible, 
helpful  extension  work  should  be  planned  which  will 
reach  adults  outside  of  the  schoolroom,  and  which  will 
assist  in  establishing  the  school  work  in  the  estimation 
of  the  public.  The  agricultural  teacher  therefore  needs 
to  be  so  well  informed  concerning  his  subject  that  he  can 
command  not  only  the  respect  of  pupils,  but  that  of 
practical  farmers  of  the  community. 

In  order  to  do  this  extension  work,  —  to  meet  the 
farmers  of  the  community  on  common  ground,  —  it  is 
evident  that  the  teacher  must  have,  together  with  his 
technical  knowledge,  understanding  of  practical  agricul- 
ture. He  must  be  able,  if  an  occasion  presents  itself, 
to  do  farm  work  in  a  deft,  workmanlike  way.  If  a  part 
of  his  youth  has  been  spent  upon  a  farm,  he  will  find  this 
experience  of  great  advantage  to  him  in  teaching  agricul- 
ture successfully  in  a  community  where  general  agricul- 
ture is  practiced.  In  any  case  he  should  have  had  at 
least  enough  actual  practice  in  doing  farm  work  under 
ordinary  farm  conditions  so  that  he  has  skill  and  ease  and 
ability  in  farm  operations. 

If  agriculture  is  to  become  universally  recognized  as  a 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHER    359 

science  as  well  as  an  art,  the  agricultural  teacher  must  be 
thoroughly  grounded  in  science.  A  knowledge  of  tech- 
nical agriculture  is  not  sufficient.  The  principles  of 
agricultural  science  have  been,  and  are  being,  developed 
through  the  application  of  scientific  principles  in  the 
field  of  agriculture.  They  are  produced  and  organized 
and  applied  through  the  study  of  the  chemistry  of  plant 
and  animal  life,  the  productivity  of  soils,  the  culture  of 
certain  kinds  of  plants,  animal  husbandry,  and  the  like. 
All  knowledge  of  agriculture  as  a  science  must  be  de- 
veloped through  knowledge  of  various  basic  sciences. 
However,  the  fact  should  not  be  forgotten  that  this 
study  of  science  must  be  accompanied  by  equally 
thorough  training  in  technical  agriculture. 

Just  as  technical  agriculture  alone  is  not  sufficient  for 
the  agricultural  teacher,  neither  is  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  science  sufficient.  The  weakness  of  the  pure  science 
man  as  a  teacher  of  agriculture  has  already  been  referred 
to.  We  have  no  reason  to  expect  because  a  man  is  a 
scholarly  and  expert  botanist  and  zoologist  that  he  will 
therefore  be  an  equally  skillful  agriculturist.  Without 
special  training  there  is  no  likelihood  that  he  will  be. 
With  many  of  the  facts  concerning  plant  growth  and  de- 
velopment which  are  of  great  importance  to  the  agricul- 
turist, the  botanist  has  little  concern;  in  many  facts 
concerning  animal  life,  of  vital  importance  to  the 
farmer,  the  zoologist  has  no  interest.  Both  the  botanist 


360        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

and  the  zoologist  are  interested  in  a  multitude  of  facts  and 
phenomena  which  have  but  a  passing  interest  for  the 
agriculturist. 

Even  when  the  trained  agriculturist  and  the  trained 
science  man  take  the  same  subject  for  presentation  and 
study,  there  is  likely  to  be  a  noticeable  difference  in 
method  because  of  the  difference  in  point  of  view. 

The  agriculturist  looks  upon  his  stock  of  scientific 
knowledge,  and  upon  the  knowledge  of  nature  presented 
to  pupils  in  the  high  school  sciences,  as  largely  for  the 
purpose  of  improving  upon  nature  and  as  a  foundation 
for  other  knowledge.  Too  frequently  the  scientist 
finds  it  impossible  to  take  this  point  of  view.  He  is  too 
much  inclined  to  teach  facts  for  what  they  are  worth  as 
facts  of  pure  science.  Moreover,  it  is  difficult  for  the 
scientist  to  gather  into  synthetic  unity  the  dissociated 
bits  of  the  subject,  when  trying  to  teach  agriculture. 

In  order  to  secure  the  habits  and  knowledge  of  agri- 
cultural science,  those  that  make  it  really  unique  and 
distinguish  it  from  all  other  fields,  there  must  be  special 
study  of  the  facts  and  processes  that  belong  to  that  field. 
A  knowledge  of  the  other  sciences,  though  they  may  be 
the  basis  of  agriculture,  is  not  sufficient. 

In  addition  to  his  scientific  and  technical  training,  the 
agricultural  teacher  should  have  as  much  broad  general 
knowledge  as  possible.  He  should  be  able  to  recognize 
the  limitations  as  well  as  the  educational  resources  of  his 


THE   HIGH   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURAL   TEACHER         361 

specialty.  He  should  understand  what  his  pupils  can 
get  from  the  study  of  agriculture  and  what  they  cannot 
get.  He  should  know  from  what  courses  the  pupils  can 
get  other  needed  training. 

Too  many  high  school  teachers  have  little  apprecia- 
tion of  what  should  be  the  right  relation  of  their  depart- 
ment to  the  other  departments  of  the  high  school.  Their 
ambition  is  to  push  their  subject  to  the  front,  regardless 
of  its  comparative  value.  They  seem,  sometimes,  to 
desire  to  crowd  out  other  subjects  altogether.  They 
have  no  idea  of  relative  values. 

Every  high  school  teacher,  if  he  is  to  do  the  best  grade 
of  work,  must  be  able  to  see  his  work  in  relation  to  that 
of  his  fellow  teachers  and  be  able  to  cooperate  with  them 
on  a  basis  of  mutual  understanding  to  the  advantage  of 
the  institution  as  a  whole. 

Included  in  his  general  education,  the  agricultural 
teacher  needs  good  training  in  English  and  public  speak- 
ing, as  a  preparation  for  the  extension  or  community 
work  which  is  coming  to  be  an  expected  part  of  his  duties. 
For  this  work,  too,  some  knowledge  of  economics,  espe- 
cially agricultural  economics,  will  be  very  valuable. 
In  fact,  any  studies  which  put  him  in  touch  with  the 
life  and  activities  of  the  world  and  help  him  to  under- 
stand better  the  relations  of  society  will  be  of  advantage. 

Lastly,  the  agricultural  teacher  needs  broad  general 
knowledge  in  order  that  he  may  make  his  work  respected 


362    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

as  it  should  be  by  his  colleagues,  by  the  high  school 
pupils,  and  by  the  community. 

For  no  very  good  reason,  there  exists  at  present  in 
many  communities  and  even  among  educated  people,  a 
lack  of  respect  for  agriculture  as  an  occupation  and  a 
lack  of  appreciation  of  the  thorough  education  which 
a  university-trained  agriculturist  now  receives.  It  is 
particularly  necessary  that  the  high  school  teacher  of 
agriculture  be  a  man  of  wide  general  information  and 
considerable  culture  if  this  tide  of  unfair  opinion  is  to  be 
turned.  There  is  no  more  reason  for  the  slighting  fling 
at  the  " farmer's"  occupation  than  for  that  of  the  en- 
gineer. It  is  a  part  of  the  duty  of  agricultural  teachers 
to  make  the  kind  of  work  for  which  they  stand  respected 
and  dignified. 

The  teacher  of  agriculture,  as  of  any  other  high  school 
subject,  needs  to  have  a  certain  amount  of  professional 
knowledge  and  training,  acquired  either  during  the  last 
two  years  of  his  university  course  or  in  postgraduate 
study  in  a  good  school  of  education. 

One  of  the  greatest  hindrances  to-day  to  the  progress 
of  agricultural  education  lies  in  the  fact  that  so  many 
agricultural  teachers  have  only  a  student's  knowledge  of 
subject  matter  and  are  lacking  in  other  essential  qualifi- 
cations of  a  successful  teacher. 

Every  teacher  of  agriculture  should  be  well  grounded 
in  the  social  and  pedagogical  principles  and  problems 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHER    363 

involved  in  all  education.  He  should  have  a  right  point 
of  view  as  to  education  in  general.  His  training  should 
include  a  general  study  of  the  past  history  and  present 
status  of  educational  institutions  and  the  relation  of  the 
high  school  to  the  elementary  school  and  the  university ; 
the  aims  and  organization  of  work  in  secondary  schools 
and  some  comparison  of  our  own  with  foreign  secondary 
schools;  the  history  of  the  teaching  of  agriculture, 
especially  in  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools;  a 
course  in  educational  psychology,  with  special  emphasis 
on  adolescence ;  study  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
education,  with  consideration  of  educational  aims,  values, 
and  processes  or  methods ;  special  study  of  methods  of 
teaching  agricultural  subjects  in  the  high  school ;  and  a 
certain  amount  of  experience  in  instruction  and  class 
management  with  secondary  pupils.  In  addition,  some 
study  of  school  hygiene  and  of  the  organization  and  man- 
agement of  the  school  system  is  most  desirable. 

The  high  school  teacher  needs  to  know  something  of 
the  history  of  secondary  education  in  order  to  under- 
stand the  present  place  and  work  of  secondary  schools. 
He  needs  to  know  something  of  our  present  civilization, 
social  conditions,  and  the  obligations  of  citizenship  in 
order  to  understand  the  work  and  problems  of  public 
education  in  general  and  the  work,  purposes,  and  special 
problems  of  secondary  education  in  particular. 

He  needs  to  have  a  knowledge  of  the  fundamental 


364        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

facts  of  psychology  and  of  their  educational  applications, 
in  order  that  he  may  deal  wisely  with  pupils  in  instruc- 
tion and  general  management.  Much  of  the  psychology 
taught  in  many  universities  is  not  directly  serviceable  to 
teachers,  it  is  true.  It  may  not  be  clear  as  to  how  some 
of  this  information  will  help  in  teaching  boys  and  girls. 
It  is  perhaps  difficult  to  point  out  how  it  can  be  put  to 
specific  daily  use  in  solving  particular  problems.  But 
that  a  knowledge  of  educational  psychology  is  valuable 
to  the  teacher,  there  is  no  doubt. 

Human  minds  do  not  work  in  a  lawless  way,  and  the 
teacher  should  know  the  laws  of  the  mind,  just  as  an 
electrical  engineer  needs  to  be  familiar  with  the  laws  of 
electricity,  before  he  installs  a  plant.  As  a  civil  engineer 
who  deals  with  certain  materials  studies  these  materials, 
so  the  high  school  teacher  should  study  the  general 
laws  governing  the  working  of  the  minds  of  boys  and 
girls  of  the  high  school  age  before  he  attempts  to  teach 
them. 

He  should  have  a  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the 
processes  and  laws  of  mental  growth,  and  should  under- 
stand the  fundamental  characteristics  of  pupils  of  the 
adolescent  period.  If  he  is  to  know  how  to  govern 
pupils,  how  to  enlist  and  hold  attention,  how  to  teach 
pupils  to  study,  he  must  understand  their  mental  char- 
acteristics and  shape  student  management  and  instruc- 
tion in  harmony  with  it. 


THE   HIGH   SCHOOL    AGRICULTURAL   TEACHER         365 

Supplementing  study  of  educational  psychology  should 
come  the  study  of  pedagogy.  Too  often  the  agricultural 
teacher  knows  enough  of  his  subject,  but  he  does  not  know 
how  to  teach  it.  As  a  part  of  his  preparation  he  needs 
a  good  general  survey  of  teaching  methods  for  the  high 
school  and  special  knowledge  and  training  in  the  teaching 
of  his  own  subject. 

Teaching  methods  for  industrial  or  vocational  sub- 
jects are  quite  unlike  those  adapted  to  the  older  high 
school  subjects.  Methods  for  different  vocational  sub- 
jects vary  widely.  In  agricultural  teaching  particularly 
a  knowledge  of  special  methods  for  the  subject  is  neces- 
sary. For  example,  the  proper  management  of  the 
work  of  individual  gardens,  experimental  or  problem 
gardens,  and  demonstration  plots  demands  a  knowledge 
of  special  methods  of  procedure.  Each  requires  a  differ- 
ent treatment  as  a  part  of  the  instructional  work  of  the 
high  school.  Moreover,  the  agricultural  field  is  so  broad 
that  the  prospective  teacher  needs  to  make  a  special 
study  of  materials  and  methods  from  the  viewpoint  of 
the  secondary  school,  that  he  may  be  able  to  segregate 
from  the  entire  field  such  materials  as  will  make  a  suitable 
course  for  a  given  place  or  a  given  length  of  time.  He 
must  understand  how  to  adapt  his  knowledge  to  the  com- 
prehension of  high  school  pupils ;  how  to  recast  that 
knowledge  to  fit  the  pupil's  mind. 

Too  many  young  college  graduates  fail  to  recognize 


366        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

the  fact  that  high  school  students  are  boys  and  girls, 
not  grown-up  young  men  and  women.  They  insist  on 
doing  special  and  technical  work  before  their  pupils  are 
prepared  for  it.  They  do  not  realize  that  college  mate- 
rials and  methods  are  not  necessarily  suited  to  the  high 
school,  and  that  what  was  admirable  in  college  instruction 
may  be  quite  the  reverse  in  the  high  school.  They  are 
too  prone  to  follow  the  example  of  their  college  profes- 
sors in  teaching,  since  their  example  is  fresh  in  memory. 
If  this  example  has  been  good,  the  result  of  their  imita- 
tion may  be  fairly  satisfactory.  But  if  not,  pupils  and 
subject  suffer. 

In  addition  to  instruction  in  special  teachers'  courses 
in  his  own  subject,  the  high  school  agricultural  teacher 
should,  if  possible,  have  some  opportunity  for  observation 
and  practice  teaching  with  secondary  pupils,  under  proper 
supervision.  He  needs  practice  in  making  lesson  plans 
and  opportunities  to  teach  under  the  direction  of  helpful 
critics.  He  needs  to  acquire,  in  addition  to  a  knowledge 
of  certain  educational  principles  and  rules,  good  sense  in 
applying  those  rules,  —  to  be  able  to  judge  as  to  when  to 
enforce  a  rule  and  when  to  disregard  it,  though  it  may  be 
an  accepted  procedure  in  teaching. 

The  university-trained  agriculturist  is  not,  "ipso 
facto,"  a  teacher.  Nor  does  he  always  become  a  good 
teacher  after  he  goes  out  into  the  high  school,  by  the 
experience  gained  there  in  his  work.  A  few  people 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHER    367 

may  be  "born  teachers";  but  the  number  is  rare. 
The  average  person  needs  training  in  order  to  become 
a  good  teacher,  as  much  as  for  any  other  vocation. 

How  the  agricultural  teacher  is  to  get  experience  and 
training  as  a  part  of  his  preparation  —  to  acquire  skill 
in  teaching  —  is  still  a  question. 

It  is  asserted  by  some  that  every  university  should 
have,  as  a  " laboratory"  for  its  education  department,  a 
secondary  school  of  observation  and  practice  for  students 
preparing  to  teach  in  the  high  school.  But  others  affirm 
that  we  cannot  expect  the  universities  to  undertake 
this  line  of  work  because  of  the  difficulty  of  securing 
support  for  such  schools  in  students  of  right  quality  and 
number  as  well  as  in  money.  Moreover,  it  is  objected 
that  ordinary  high  school  conditions  do  not  prevail  in 
such  schools. 

As  a  substitute,  it  is  suggested  that  arrangements  be 
made  with  local  high  schools  for  practice  work  and  sub- 
stituting, the  university  possibly  assisting  in  paying  the 
salaries  of  superior  teachers  for  such  schools,  with  the 
understanding  that  they  supervise  the  practice  work  of 
students  and  act  as  critic  teachers. 

The  ideal  plan  for  practice  work  as  a  part  of  a  future 
high  school  teacher's  training  is  as  yet  undetermined, 
though  in  one  way  or  another  a  considerable  number  of 
colleges  are  trying  to  find  it.  But  that  the  practice 
teaching  should  be  in  schools  of  secondary  rank  seems 


368        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

unquestioned.  The  suggestion  that  experience  in  grades 
be  made  a  part  of  a  high  school  teacher's  training  has  not 
infrequently  been  made.  But  the  fact  that  grade  pupils 
are  of  different  age,  capacity,  and  characteristics  from 
high  school  pupils  makes  such  an  arrangement  very 
unsatisfactory. 

Finally,  the  high  school  agricultural  teacher  must  be 
of  desirable  personal  qualities.  He  should  have  good 
health,  good  habits,  a  well-balanced  mind,  and  an  opti- 
mistic nature.  He  should  be  of  strong,  sympathetic  per- 
sonality, able  to  feel  and  see  with  his  pupils.  "  Without 
sympathy  a  teacher  may  develop  such  a  spirit  of  con- 
trariness in  his  pupils  that  they  will  walk  to  the  block  and 
lay  down  their  intellectual  heads  before  they  will  study 
for  him."  He  must  have  imagination,  that  he  may  put 
himself  in  the  position  of  pupils  and  look  through  their 
eyes.  He  should  have  a  well-developed  sense  of  humor, 
enabling  him  to  see  and  to  enjoy  the  humorous,  to  en- 
liven the  routine  of  daily  school  work,  and  to  take  the 
sting  out  of  unpleasant  situations.  He  must  be  prepared 
to  meet  people  pleasantly  in  his  community  work  and  to 
establish  agreeable  working  relations  with  them;  and 
he  must  be  prepared  to  maintain  harmonious  relations 
with  his  fellow  teachers. 

Some  people  ought  never  to  teach,  whatever  their 
training.  The  man  of  bad  personal  habits,  bad  taste, 
irritable,  gloomy,  or  narrow  in  his  views  of  life  has  no 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHER    369 

business  in  a  schoolroom.  The  universities  should  see 
to  it  that  those  students  who  have  not  the  natural  traits 
of  a  good  teacher  are  urged  to  take  up  some  other  line  of 
work.  There  are  many  things  besides  teaching  which 
an  agriculturally  trained  man  can  do.  If  he  shows 
plainly  that  he  is  not  adapted  to  the  teaching  profession, 
he  should  be  urged  to  take  up  some  farming  occupation, 
not  to  go  into  the  high  school  to  teach.  Agricultural 
colleges  should  not  recommend  persons  to  teach  unless 
they  have  natural  ability  as  teachers,  together  with  a 
proper  amount  of  technical  and  professional  training. 

It  is  evident  that  many  of  the  qualifications  necessary 
for  the  high  school  agricultural  teacher  are  quite  as 
necessary  for  other  high  school  teachers ;  but  it  is  equally 
clear  that  a  more  extended  training  is  required  for  him 
than  for  his  colleagues.  Moreover,  the  duties  as  well  as 
the  preparation  of  an  agricultural  teacher  are  greater 
than  those  of  other  high  school  teachers. 

As  has  been  said,  it  is  now  recognized  that  the  high 
school  agricultural  teacher  (as  also  perhaps  the  home 
economics  and  the  manual  training  teacher)  must  not 
only  work  with  students,  but  that  he  must  be  prepared 
to  do  a  certain  amount  of  community  or  extension  work ; 
that  is,  work  for  and  among  those  members  of  the  agri- 
cultural community  who  do  not  attend  school,  —  the 
men  and  women  on  the  farms  and  the  boys  and  girls 
who  cannot  attend  school  regularly. 

2B 


370        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

The  question  may  be  raised  as  to  why  such  duties 
should  devolve  upon  the  agricultural  and  other  voca- 
tional teachers,  and  not  upon  the  teachers  of  other  sub- 
jects. In  the  first  place,  even  though  other  departments 
might  wish  to  help  the  people  of  the  community,  there  is 
little  opportunity  for  them  to  do  so  because  of  their 
limited  equipment  along  practical  lines.  Comparatively 
few  persons  are  interested  in  the  languages,  or  school 
mathematics;  but  all  farmers  and  many  others  are  in- 
terested in  agriculture.  We  need  comparatively  few 
scholars,  but  many  breadwinners.  However,  it  would 
undoubtedly  be  a  move  in  the  right  direction  if  the 
teachers  of  the  so-called  cultural  subjects  should  search 
out  the  possibilities  in  extension  work  along  their  own 
lines,  inaugurating  reading  circles,  popular  literary  or 
historical  lecture  courses,  and  the  like. 

In  order  to  do  extension  work  most  effectively,  the 
agricultural  teacher  must  be  in  keen  sympathy  with 
rural  needs  and  welfare ;  he  must  give  more  or  less  time 
to  special  study  and  investigation  of  agricultural  prob- 
lems in  the  locality.  He  must  be  thoroughly  informed 
as  to  all  the  work  of  the  national  government  and  the 
state  agricultural  college  and  experiment  station  along 
lines  of  interest  to  farmers  of  the  district ;  and  he  should 
keep  in  touch  with  the  experiment  stations  in  other 
states  where  work  is  done  under  conditions  similar  to 
those  in  his  own  state. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHER    371 

He  must  be  able  not  only  to  present  a  topic  to  a  class, 
but  to  take  up  the  agricultural  problems  of  farmers  and 
to  help  in  finding  a  solution.  He  must  be  able  to  direct 
and  carry  on  short  course  work,  to  direct  the  work  of 
farmers'  institutes,  to  cooperate  with  the  state  experi- 
ment station  and  the  national  government  in  carrying 
on  experiments  at  a  school  experiment  station  for  the 
benefit  of  the  locality.  He  should  be  able  to  prepare 
for  publication,  in  good,  clear  English,  leaflets  bearing 
on  the  agricultural  problems  of  the  district,  and  to  di- 
rect their  distribution. 

He  may  not  do  all  this,  and  unless  special  assistance  is 
given  him  whereby  his  classroom  work  is  lightened  and 
financial  support  is  assured,  he  will  be  unable  to  do  so ; 
but  he  should  have  preparation  which  fits  him  to  do 
this  kind  of  work. 

In  addition  to  his  regular  school  and  extension  duties, 
the  agricultural  teacher  is  frequently  expected  to  be  on 
duty  practically  throughout  the  year,  being  responsible 
for  the  school  farm  during  the  summer  vacation  period 
and  supervising  the  summer  home  project  work  of  stu- 
dents. His  vacation,  if  he  has  one,  is  thus  necessarily 
brief ;  unless  there  are  two  or  more  agricultural  teachers 
in  the  high  school,  and  arrangements  are  made  whereby 
they  relieve  each  other  at  certain  times ;  or  unless,  as 
has  been  suggested  (pp.  322-23),  it  is  possible  to  so 
arrange  the  agricultural  work  of  the  school  as  to  give  the 


372        MATERIALS   AND   METHODS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

teacher  a  winter  vacation  corresponding  to  the  summer 
vacation  of  other  teachers. 

Having  reviewed  the  qualifications  and  legitimate 
duties  of  the  agricultural  teacher,  the  next  question  is 
naturally  as  to  where  he  can  receive  proper  training  for 
his  work.1  In  most  of  the  agricultural  colleges  provision 
is  made  for  instruction  in  the  history  and  theory  of  peda- 
gogy,2 and  in  a  considerable  number  special  courses  are 
given  for  students  preparing  for  public  school  teaching. 
However,  in  many  cases  this  preparation  is  especially 
for  rural  or  elementary  school  work.3  In  a  few  colleges 
an  endeavor  is  made  to  prepare  students  especially  for 
high  school  agricultural  teaching ;  but  the  number  is  very 
limited.  In  only  one  or  two  instances  is  there  any  at- 
tempt to  give  supervised  experience  in  high  school 
practice  teaching. 

1  It  is  perhaps  needless  to  say  that  persons  already  teaching  agricul- 
ture, but  inadequately  prepared  for  their  work,  should,  wherever  possible, 
discontinue  teaching  to  prepare  themselves  fully.     Where  this  is  not 
possible,  they  should  take  advantage  of  summer  school  or  correspondence 
courses,  dealing  with  the  subjects  in  which  they  are  lacking. 

2  Monahan,  A.  C.,  "  What  is  being  done  to  prepare  Teachers  of  Second- 
ary Agriculture,"  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Education  Bui.,    1912,  No.  6,  pp.  41- 
51 ;  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner,  1910,  pp.  256- 
258;   Davis,  B.  M.,  "Agricultural  Education,"    chapter  5,  University 
of  Chicago  Press,  1910. 

3  Except  where  the  teachers  are  to  be  supervisors  of  the  work,  this 
seems  to  be  a  mistake.     For  the  normal  schools  can,  if  they  secure  prop- 
erly trained  teachers  from  the  agricultural  colleges,  very  well  take  care 
of  the  training  in  agriculture  of  the  grade  or  rural  school  teacher. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHER    373 

Even  where  adequate  training  can  be  secured  for 
secondary  agricultural  teaching,  comparatively  few 
students  take  the  work.  Opportunities  for  trained 
agriculturists  in  the  commercial  world  and  in  practical 
farming  are  as  yet  more  attractive  than  teaching  in  a 
high  school.  The  tendency  is  naturally  to  emphasize 
technical  training,  since  it  is  this  that  promises  the  great- 
est returns. 

If  agricultural  college  students  are  to  be  induced  to 
take  the  special  professional  training  needed  to  fit  them 
for  high  school  work  and  to  engage  in  teaching,  they  must 
be  paid  salaries  which  will  make  the  work  attractive  to 
them.  Otherwise  such  persons  will  refuse  to  enter  the 
schoolroom  and  will  go  into  the  commercial  world.  If 
teachers  of  the  desired  grade  are  to  be  attracted  to  high 
school  agricultural  work,  they  must  be  paid  salaries  com- 
mensurate with  the  experience  and  training  which  they 
have  received  and  the  duties  they  are  expected  to  per- 
form. The  agricultural  teacher  should,  obviously,  re- 
ceive a  salary  greater  than  that  of  a  mere  skilled  agri- 
culturist, or  that  of  the  ordinary  academic  trained  teacher 
of  history  or  English.  It  must  be  at  least  as  much  as 
would  be  received  in  other  lines  of  work  open  to  him. 

That  it  is  worth  while  to  pay  such  salaries  to  high 
school  teachers  of  agriculture,  there  is  no  doubt.  For 
agricultural  work,  or  vocational  work  of  any  kind,  the 
best  teachers  are  needed.  Inefficiency  is  more  disastrous 


374    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

in  this  than  in  any  other  kind  of  teaching  work.  From 
the  incompetent  teacher,  pupils  will  receive  neither  satis- 
factory training  in  the  art  of  farming  nor  educative  in- 
struction in  the  science  of  agriculture.  But  the  value  of 
the  services  of  an  efficient  agricultural  teacher  to  pupils 
and  to  the  community  is  beyond  measure.  From  him 
pupils  receive  practical  training  which  enables  them  to 
go  out  and  earn  a  living ;  and  that  interest  in  and  un- 
derstanding of  their  environment  which  gives  zest  to 
life.  Through  the  work  and  influence  of  many  such 
shall  industrial  education  in  general  and  agricultural 
education  in  particular  "come  to  its  own"  and  be  put 
on  an  assured  basis  of  support  in  the  minds  of  the 
people. 

PRACTICUM 

Outline  a  four-year  college  course  which  you  consider 
best  suited  to  the  needs  of  a  person  preparing  to  teach 
agriculture  in  a  high  school.  Indicate  studies  for  each 
year  and  the  amount  of  time  (credit  hours)  to  be  devoted 
to  each. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 

BAILEY,  L.  H.    On  the  Training  of  Persons  to  teach  Agriculture 

in  the  Public  Schools.     U.  S.  Bur.  of  Education  Bui.     1908. 

No.  i. 
DAVIS,  B.   M.     Agricultural  Education  in  the  Public  Schools. 

Chapters    5    and    7.     Chic.     University   of    Chicago   Press. 

1912. 
MONAHAN,  A.  C.    What  is  being  done  to  prepare  Teachers  of  Sec- 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURAL  TEACHER    375 

ondary  Agriculture.  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Education  Bui.  1912. 
No.  6.  pp.  41-51. 

Professional  Preparation  of  High  School  Teachers.  National 
Education  Association.  Proceedings.  1907.  pp.  523-617. 
(Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seventeen.) 

ROBISON,  C.  H.,  and  JENKS,  F.  B.  Agricultural  Instruction  in 
High  Schools.  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Education  Bui.  1913.  No.  6. 
pp.  24-50. 

SACHS,  JULIUS.  The  American  Secondary  School.  Part  I. 
The  Teacher.  N.  Y.  Macmillan.  1912. 

STORM,  A.  V.  The  Unprepared  Teacher  of  Agriculture  in  High 
Schools  and  Colleges  of  Education.  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Education 
Bui.  1912.  No.  6.  pp.  33-40. 

What  constitutes  the  Ideal  Secondary  Teacher.  Symposium. 
National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  Fourth  Year- 
book. 1905.  Part  i.  pp.  27-48. 

The  Work  of  the  Agricultural  Colleges  in  Training  Teachers  of 
Agriculture  for  Secondary  Schools.  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations  Cir.  118.  1912.  (Fifteenth  Report  of  the  Committee 
on  Instruction  in  Agriculture  of  the  Association  of  American 
Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations.) 


INDEX 


Accounts,  study  of  farm,  56,  61,  296- 
297,  299. 

Agricultural  instruction  in  high  schools, 
history  of,  4-8. 

Agricultural  news  hour,  the,  301. 

Agricultural  schools,  special  secondary, 
function  of,  o-io. 

Alabama,  establishment  of  agricul- 
tural schools  in,  5-6. 

Anderson,  Leroy,  outline  for  poultry 
work  by,  210. 

Animal  husbandry,  place  of,  in  curricu- 
lum, 44,  46,  47,  48,  49  ff.,  156-157; 
character  and  scope  of  courses,  155- 
156;  outlines  for  courses,  157  ff., 
169—183;  textbooks  for,  161;  man- 
uals, exercises,  score  cards,  etc.,  162 ; 
recitations,  review  quizzes,  and 
lectures,  164-165;  equipment  for, 
165  ff.;  books  on,  167-168;  com- 
munity work  in  connection  with, 
168-169. 

Apparatus,  for  agricultural  labora- 
tories, 93-97.  See  Equipment. 

Arkansas,  establishment  of  agricultural 
schools  in,  6. 

Authority,  the  necessary  acquisition 
of  knowledge  by,  67;  complement- 
ing and  verification  of,  by  personal 
observation  and  tests,  67-68. 


B 


Bailey,  L.  H.,  on  terms  "farm  manage- 
ment" and  "rural  economics,"  269. 

Bakersfield,  Cal.,  outline  for  horticul- 
tural work  in  high  school,  248-249; 
school  farm  at,  347-349. 

Barley,  excess  per  acre  abroad  in  pro- 
duction of,  over  United  States,  19. 


Beekeeping,  study  of,  61,  129. 

Blackberry,  outline  for  study  of  the, 
257-258. 

Blacksmithing,  study  of,  in  farm  me- 
chanics, 275,  281-282. 

Books  in  school  agricultural  library, 
100-104;  for  first-year  work,  147- 
154;  for  course  in  animal  husbandry, 
166-168;  for  dairying  course,  196- 
197;  for  poultry  course,  210-211, 
218-219;  f°r  horticultural  course, 
244;  for  farm  mechanics,  290-294; 
for  farm  management  course,  303- 
305.  See  also  Textbooks. 

Botany  in  agricultural  course,  46,  47, 
48,  49,  50  ff.,  127,  130  ff.,  139. 

Bricker,  G.  A.,  quoted,  r,  8-9,  42,  66. 

Budding,  study  of,  59,  229,  232,  238. 

Building,  practical  work  in,  283-284. 

Buildings,  planning,  grouping,  and 
construction  of  farm,  262—263,  2?6. 

Bulletins,  agricultural,  for  school  li- 
braries, 102-103,  147. 

Butter,  Danish,  18-19. 

Butterfield,  President,  on  nomenclature 
of  course  in  rural  economics,  268- 
269. 

C 

California,  high  school  agricultural 
courses  in,  54-57 ;  outlines  for  work 
in  horticulture  for  high  schools  in, 
227,  247-261 ;  outlines  for  work  in 
farm  mechanics  in,  308-309. 

California  Polytechnic  School,  7. 

Circulars,  agricultural,  for  school  li- 
braries, 102-103. 

Cities,  dependence  of,  on  successful 
agriculture,  20. 

Clubs,  agricultural,  80-8 1 ;  poultry, 
215;  gardening,  in  horticultural 
work,  235. 


377 


378 


INDEX 


Coin,  Iowa,  high  school  agricultural 
course,  57-61. 

Colleges,  province  of  agricultural  work 
in,  2—3 ;  relief  to,  by  establishment 
of  special  secondary  schools  of  agri- 
culture, o-io ;  criticism  of  graduates 
of  agricultural,  and  reasons,  314. 

Commercial  farm,  the  model,  325-326. 

Community  gardens,  in  horticultural 
course,  234-236. 

Community  work,  by  high  school  agri- 
cultural departments,  82-86;  in 
connection  with  animal  husbandry, 
i68-i6g;  in  dairy  course,  198;  in 
poultry  course,  215  ;  in  horticultural 
course,  246—247  ;  in  farm  mechanics 
and  farm  buildings,  294—295 ;  in 
farm  management,  305-307 ;  in 
connection  with  the  school  farm, 
323 ;  qualifications  necessary  to 
teacher  for,  358,  369-371. 

Contests  in  agricultural  work,  81 ; 
utilization  of,  in  horticultural  course, 
234;  plowing,  295. 

Cook,  Dean,  quoted,  339. 

Cooperative  breeding,  198. 

Corn-growing  clubs,  81. 

Cotton-growing  clubs,  81. 

Country  life  conferences,  307. 

County  agricultural  high  schools,  6-7. 

Courses  of  study,  agricultural,  32-63. 

Cow-testing  associations,  198. 

Crocheron,  B.  H.,  community  work 
outlined  by,  83-84. 

Crop  garden,  the,  145. 

Crops,  study  of,  226. 

Crosby,  D.  J.,  cited,  o,  234;  on  use 
of  illustrative  material  in  teaching 
agriculture,  77-78 ;  community 
work  outlined  by,  83-84. 

Curriculum,  arrangement  of  the  high 
school,  32-63. 


Dairying,  place  of,  in  high  school  cur- 
riculum, 44,  45,  47,  48,  50,  155,  156, 
184-185;  textbooks  in,  73;  labora- 
tory equipment  for  courses  in,  95- 
96,  194-196;  rightful  popularity  of 


course,  185;  suggested  division  of 
class  into  a  girls'  and  a  boys'  section, 
1 86;  topics  to  be  included  in  course, 
186-187;  importance  of  teacher's 
outlining  work,  187;  methods  of 
approaching  work,  187  ff. ;  text- 
books for,  189—190;  recitations  in, 
190-191 ;  laboratory  and  other  prac- 
ticum  work,  191-192 ;  field  trips, 
193-194;  individual  home  project 
work,  194;  books  and  bulletins  for, 
196-198;  community  work  in  con- 
nection with,  198 ;  outlines  of  courses 
in,  199—204. 

Davenport,  E.,  quoted,  1—2,  8,  23. 

Davis,  B.  M.,  cited,  372. 

Davis  bill,  to  secure  federal  aid  for 
high  school  instruction  in  agricul- 
ture, 91. 

De  Garmo,  C.,  quoted  and  cited,  22, 
28  n.,  33,  66,  68. 

Demonstration  plots  in  gardens,  144- 
145 ;  care  of,  in  vacations,  335-336. 

Demonstrations,  use  of,  in  first-year 
work,  141-142. 

Denmark,  advantage  of  agricultural 
education  in  case  of,  18-19. 

Drainage,  study  of,  136,  266,  275. 

Drawing  instruments  and  materials, 
290. 

Dried  fruit  industry,  study  of,  259. 


E 


Education,  vital  importance  of  agri- 
cultural, 1 6-2 1 ;  arguments  from 
standpoint  of,  for  giving  agriculture 
in  the  public  schools,  21-29;  em- 
phasis to  be  placed  on,  as  main 
object  of  the  school  farm,  324-325, 

351. 

Elementary  schools,  object  of  agri- 
cultural work  in,  1-2. 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  "New  Definition  of  the 
Cultured  Man"  by,  quoted,  27  n. 

Elliff,  J.  D.,  outline  for  animal  hus- 
bandry course  by,  159,  177-181. 

Environmental  conditions,  first-year 
study  of,  in  high  school  agricultural 
work,  44,  132,  133,  134  ff. 


INDEX 


379 


Equipment,  for  teaching  high  school 
agriculture,  88  S. ;  provision  of,  for 
first-year  work,  146;  for  animal 
husbandry  work,  165  ff. ;  for  dairy 
work,  194-196;  for  poultry  work, 
215-217 ;  for  outdoor  work  in  horti- 
culture, 243;  for  farm  mechanics 
and  farm  buildings,  285-290,  309; 
for  farm  management,  302;  for 
school  farms,  331-335. 

Europe,  excess  in  production  per  acre 
in,  over  United  States,  19. 

Exhibits,  of  agricultural  products  in 
connection  with  club  work,  81-82 ; 
illustrative,  as  a  part  of  agricultural 
school  equipment,  105-106;  of 
dairy  products,  198 ;  of  poultry  prod- 
ucts, 212;  in  connection  with  hor- 
ticultural work,  237. 

Experimental  grounds  for  practice 
work,  79. 

Experimental  work,  as  the  province  of 
agricultural  study  in  colleges,  2-3 ; 
as  one  means  of  acquiring  knowledge 
in  high  school,  69. 

Experiment  station,  the  school  farm 
as  an,  323-324. 

"Experiment  Station  Record,"  an 
essential  for  school  libraries,  104. 

Experiment  stations,  new  agricultural 
truths  discovered  by,  15. 

Extension  work  in  agriculture.  See 
Community  work. 


F 


Farm  animals,  second-year  study  of, 
44,  48  ff.,  156-157. 

Farm  buildings,  course  in,  273 ;  sub- 
jects to  be  studied  under,  276;  text- 
books in,  278;  practicum  work  in, 
283-285 ;  community  work  in  con- 
nection with,  294-295. 

Farmer,  arguments  advanced  by  the, 
for  agricultural  teaching  in  high 
schools,  13-21. 

Farmers'  institutes,  295. 

Farm  management,  place  of,  in  curric- 
ulum, 44,  45,  295;  scope  of  study, 
264 ;  division  of  time  between  prac- 


tice work  and  recitations  in,  273- 
274;  growing  realization  of  impor- 
tance of  economy  in,  295-296 ;  text- 
books in,  297 ;  lectures  in,  297-298 ; 
practicum  work,  298-300;  equip- 
ment for,  302 ;  periodicals  and  books 
for,  302-305;  community  work  in, 
305-307  J  outline  of  work  in,  310. 

Farm  mechanics,  study  of,  in  fourth 
year,  262 ;  scope  of  study,  264 ; 
discussion  as  to  term,  267-272 ;  sub- 
jects of  study,  274-275;  textbooks 
and  bulletins  on,  276-277;  lectures 
and  reading  assignments,  277-278; 
library  equipment,  200-294;  com- 
munity work  in  connection  with, 
294—295 ;  outlines  of  work  in,  308— 
309;  equipment  for,  309;  outline 
for  work  in,  310.  See  Machinery. 

Federal  aid  for  high  school  instruction 
in  agriculture,  90-91. 

Felmley,  David,  quoted,  16. 

Fences,  building  of,  276. 

Fertilizer  demonstration  plots,  144- 
145- 

Fertilizers,  study  of,  136, 137 ;  securing 
samples  of,  146. 

Field  crops,  study  of,  226. 

Field  exercises,  place  of,  in  first-year 
work,  141,  142. 

Field  trips  for  high  school  classes,  75, 
76—79;  use  of,  in  first-year  work, 
142;  in  animal  husbandry  course, 
161 ;  in  dairy  work,  193-194 ;  in 
poultry  work,  212,  213;  in  horti- 
cultural course,  237;  in  farm  me- 
chanics, 278. 

Field  work,  proper  employment  of, 
239- 

First-year  agricultural  work,  108  ff. ; 
question  of  name  to  be  chosen  for, 
109—112;  outline  of  course  in,  112— 
113;  interrelation  of,  with  begin- 
ning course  in  science,  113  ff. ;  tab- 
ular arrangement  giving  outline  of 
first-year  course,  126-140;  demon- 
strations, laboratory,  and  field  work 
in,  141-142 ;  excursions  or  field 
trips,  142 ;  garden  work,  142- 
144;  demonstration  plots,  144-145; 


INDEX 


equipment  for,  145-146;    field  trips 

and  community  observations,   147 ; 

library  equipment,  147-154. 
Floriculture,  230,  231,  239. 
Forestry    in    agricultural    course,    47, 

48,  56,  61. 
Forge  work,  276,  279;   equipment  for, 

309- 

Fourth-year  work,  262  ff. 
Fruit    culture,    study    of,     227-229; 

indoor    work    in    connection    with, 

236-237 ;  outline  for  course  in,  250- 

260. 


Gardena,  Cal.,  high  school  agricultural 
course,  56;  outline  for  horticultural 
work  in,  249;  practical  work  in 
building  at,  284;  outline  of  farm 
mechanics  work  at,  308 ;  school 
farm  at,  347. 

Gardens,  school,  79 ;  disposal  of  prod- 
ucts of,  144;  individual  and  com- 
munity, in  horticultural  work,  233- 
236. 

Garden  tools  for  school  farm,  335. 

Garden  work  in  first-year  course,  142- 
144. 

Gardener,  F.  D.,  on  terms  "farm  man- 
agement" and  "rural  economics," 
270-272. 

Gasoline  engine,  study  of,  274;  secur- 
ing apparatus  for  studying,  289. 

Georgia,  establishment  of  agricultural 
schools  in,  6. 

Goats  on  school  farms,  333. 

Grafting,  50,  229,  238,  249. 

Grape,  outline  for  study  of  the,  254- 

257- 
Greenhouses    for    practice    work,    79, 

96,  241-242. 
Guthrie    County,    Iowa,    high    school 

agricultural  course,  53-54. 


H 


Halligan,  C.  P.,  on  high  school  course 

in  horticulture,  227. 
Harvesting   methods,    study   of,    229, 

259-260. 


Hens,  amount  realized  from,  in  Amer- 
ica, 205.  See  Poultry. 

High  schools,  scope  and  purpose  of 
instruction  in  agriculture  in,  i  ff.; 
history  of  agricultural  teaching  in, 
4-8;  arguments  for  and  against 
establishment  of  separate  agricul- 
tural high  schools,  8-10 ;  unanimity 
of  opinion  as  to  advantage  of  agri- 
cultural instruction  in,  10-11;  rea- 
sons for  introducing  agriculture  in, 
1 2  ff . ;  arguments  advanced  by  the 
farmer  for  agricultural  teaching  in, 
13-21 ;  arguments  from  the  educa- 
tional standpoint  for,  21-29;  age  of 
leaving,  raised  by  agricultural  teach- 
ing, 30;  place  of  agriculture  in  cur- 
riculum of,  32  ff. ;  teachers  and 
teaching  methods  in,  65  ff.,  353-374. 

Holtville,  Cal.,  union  high  school  agri- 
cultural course,  57. 

Home  project  work,  51,  80,  314-323; 
in  dairying,  194. 

Horse,  study  of  the,  177-178. 

Horticulture,  course  in,  44,  226;  topics 
to  be  included  in,  227-231 ;  text- 
books for,  231 ;  laboratory  work 
and  field  practicums  in,  231-237; 
apparatus  for  use  in,  243 ;  books  and 
bulletins  for,  244-246;  community 
work  in  connection  with,  246-247 ; 
outlines  for,  247-261. 

Howe,  F.  W.,  cited  on  agricultural 
clubs,  80. 

Hurd,  W.  D.,  course  in  agriculture 
prepared  by,  52-53. 

Hyatt,  E.,  quoted,  29  n. 


I 


Illustrative  lessons,  suggestions  from 
publications  giving,  148,  149-151. 

Illustrative  material,  use  of,  77-78, 
105-106. 

Implements,  study  of,  in  farm  me- 
chanics course,  274,  288;  for  the 
school  farm,  334-335. 

Incubators,  practice  in  use  of,  214. 

Indian  and  Negro  schools,  agricultural 
courses  in,  7. 


INDEX 


Industrial  education,  state  aid  of,  90- 

93- 
Initiative,  development  of,  by  home 

practice  work,  80,  314-323. 
Insect  study,  158,  175,  176-177,  229. 
Iowa,  high  school  agricultural  courses 

in,  53-54,  57-6i. 
Irrigation,  study  of,  136,  229,  266,  275. 


Jewell,  J.  R.,  cited,  18. 
Judd,  C.  M.,  on  teachers  of  agriculture, 
356  n. 

K 

Kansas,  state  aid  of  agricultural  teach- 
ing in  high  schools  in,  92  n. 

Kern  County,  Cal.,  high  school  agri- 
cultural course,  54-56. 

Knapp,  Seaman  A.,  work  of,  among 
Southern  farmers,  20. 


Labor  on  school  farms,  division  of, 
between  students  and  employees, 
337-341. 

Laboratory,  equipment  of  the,  93-96; 
location,  96 ;  supplies  for,  97 ;  for 
dairy  work,  195. 

Laboratory  work,  75-76,  141,  142; 
publications  giving  exercises  for, 
149-151,  239-240;  in  dairying,  191- 
192;  in  horticulture,  231  ff. 

Landscape  gardening,  230;  indoor 
practicum  work  in,  238-239;  out- 
line for  study  of,  261. 

Lange,  A.  F.,  quoted,  25  n. 

Lath-houses  for  work  in  horticulture, 
241,  242-243. 

Lectures,  use  of,  in  high  school  agri- 
culture, 74-75  ;  in  animal  husbandry 
courses,  161 ;  illustrated,  in  con- 
nection with  community  work,  294- 
295- 

Library,  the  agricultural,  74,  99-105. 
See  Books. 

Lighting  of  farm  buildings,  study  of, 
276. 


Live  stock,  place  of  study,  in  high 
school  curriculum,  45,  226;  list 
of  books  on,  167-168;  outlines  for 
courses,  160-183;  provision  for,  on 
the  school  farm,  333. 

Louisiana,  state  aid  of  agricultural 
teaching  in  high  schools  in,  92  n. 


M 


Machinery,  farm,  study  of,  44,  45,  262, 
274,  279,  288. 

Machines  for  the  school  farm,  334-335. 

McKay,  Professor,  cited,  18. 

Magazines,  dealing  with  farm  me- 
chanics, 292 ;  articles  on  farm  man- 
agement in,  302-303. 

Main,  Josiah,  charts  of  agricultural 
course  for  high  schools  prepared  by, 
62-63;  quoted,  327. 

Maine,  agricultural  course  for  high 
schools  in,  52-53  ;  state  aid  of  indus- 
trial and  agricultural  teaching  in, 
92  n. ;  outline  for  animal  husbandry 
course  in,  180-183;  poultry  course 
for  high  schools  in,  220-225. 

Manual  training  course,  desirability 
of,  275-276;  farm  devices  and  appli- 
ances to  be  made  in,  279. 

Marketing  methods,  study  of,  229, 
259-260. 

Marketing  products  of  school  farm,  326. 

Maryland,  state  aid  of  agricultural  and 
other  industrial  teaching  in  high 
schools  in,  92  n. 

Massachusetts,  state  schools  of  agri- 
culture in,  7 ;  state  aid  of  vocational 
agricultural  departments  in  high 
schools  in,  92. 

Massachusetts  Education  Service, 
home  project  work  recommended  by, 
322-323. 

Mechanical  drawing,  advantage  of 
instruction  in,  276;  textbooks  in, 
277;  desirability  of,  in  farm  me- 
chanics and  farm  buildings,  285 ; 
instruments  for  use  in,  200. 

Michigan,  county  agricultural  high 
schools  in,  6 ;  agricultural  courses  in, 
158,  227. 


382 


INDEX 


Michigan  Agricultural  College,  high 
school  course  in  agriculture  in,  49- 
51 ;  outline  for  animal  production 
course  in,  173;  outline  of  dairying 
course,  199;  outline  of  farm  man- 
agement work,  310;  subject  of 
school  farms  passed  over  in  publica- 
tions of,  329. 

Miniature  farms,  on  school  grounds, 
349-351. 

Minnesota,  county  high  schools  of 
agriculture  and  domestic  science  in, 
6;  state  aid  of  industrial  and  agri- 
cultural departments  in  high  schools 
in,  91  n. 

Minnesota  Department  of  Public 
Instruction,  outline  of  animal  hus- 
bandry course  by,  160;  outline  of 
dairy  course  by,  187;  outline  for 
poultry  study,  209—210. 

Minnesota  University  College  of  Agri- 
culture, agricultural  high  school  of,  5. 

Mississippi,  county  agricultural  high 
schools  in,  6. 

Model  farm  shop,  280;  construction 
and  equipment,  285-288. 

Monahan,  A.  C.,  cited,  372. 

Mount  Hermon,  instruction  in  agri- 
culture at,  7. 

Museum,  the  field,  145. 

N 

Nature-study,  agricultural,  2. 

New  York,  state  aid  of  agricultural 
departments  in,  7,  91  n. 

New  York  State  Education  Depart- 
ment, agricultural  course  for  high 
schools  suggested  by,  51-52;  out- 
line for  animal  production  course  in, 
157-158,  160-172;  outline  for 
poultry  study,  219-220;  horticul- 
tural work  suggested  by,  227;  on 
home  project  work,  320;  subject  of 
land  equipment  passed  over  in  bul- 
letins of,  329. 

New  York  State  School  of  Agriculture, 
Canton,  N.  Y.,  labor  on  school  farm 
at,  339- 

Nomenclature,  desirability  of  uniform- 


ity in,  i  oo-n  i ;  of  course  pertaining 
to  rural  economics,  267—272. 

Normal  schools,  agricultural  work  in, 
7,  354- 

North  Dakota,  state  aid  of  agricul- 
tural and  other  industrial  teaching 
in  schools  of,  92  n. 

Notebooks  for  recording  exercises  and 
demonstrations,  141. 


Oats,  excess  per  acre  abroad  in  pro- 
duction of,  over  United  States,  19. 

Observation,  acquisition  of  knowledge 
by  personal,  67-68;  training  of 
high  school  pupils  in,  68;  supple- 
menting of,  by  experiment,  69. 

Oklahoma,  provision  for  agricultural 
high  schools  in,  6. 

Olericulture,  229;  outline  for  course  of 
study  in,  260-261. 

Orchard  fruits,  study  of,  227,  228,  229. 

Orchards,  work  in,  229,  232,  238. 

Oxnard,  Cal.,  school  farm  of  high  school 
at,  345. 


Page  bill,  to  secure  federal  aid  for  high 
school  instruction  in  agriculture,  91. 

Palmer,  C.  F.,  cited  on  lath- houses, 
243  n. ;  outline  of  Gardena  High 
School  course  in  horticulture  by, 
249;  on  labor  on  Gardena  school 
farm,  347. 

Peach,  outline  for  study  of  the,  252— 
254- 

Pennsylvania,  state  aid  of  agricultural 
teaching  in  high  schools  in,  92  n. 

Periodicals,  agricultural,  for  school 
libraries,  100-104,  149-154. 

Plant  and  plant  production,  first-year 
study  of,  in  high  schools,  43-44, 
108-109,  125  ff.,  228-229;  tabulated 
arrangement  of  course,  126-140; 
review  of,  to  be  included  in  the  hor- 
ticultural work,  228-229;  use  of 
greenhouses  and  lath-houses  for, 
241-243. 


INDEX 


383 


Plowing  contests,  295. 

Pomology,  inclusion  of,  in  horticultural 
work,  229. 

Potatoes,  excess  per  acre  abroad  in 
production  of,  over  United  States,  19. 

Poultry  course,  45,  205  ff . ;  importance 
of,  205 ;  suitability  of  subject  for 
high  school  agricultural  course,  206- 
207;  place  of,  in  curriculum,  208- 
209;  outlines  for  study,  200-210, 
219-225;  books  and  laboratory 
manuals  for,  210-211;  teaching 
methods,  211  ff. ;  community  work 
in  connection  with,  215;  equipment 
for,  215-217;  library  equipment, 
217-219. 

Power,  study  of  sources  of  farm,  274. 

Practice  work,  necessity  of,  70;  in 
greenhouses,  experimental  grounds, 
and  school  farms,  79 ;  importance  of, 
and  of  the  school  farm  for,  98;  in 
teaching,  for  high  school  agricultural 
teachers,  366-368. 

Practicums,  provision  of,  by  teachers, 
for  laboratory  work,  76 ;  publications 
giving,  149-154;  in  animal  hus- 
bandry, 162,  163-164;  dairy  work, 
191—194;  farm  buildings,  283—285; 
in  farm  management,  298-300 ;  farm 
mechanics,  282-283 ;  horticultural, 
231  ff. ;  poultry  work,  212  ff. 

Price,  Dean,  on  nomenclature  of  rural 
engineering  subjects,  269-270. 

Products  of  gardens,  disposal  of,  144. 

Project  study,  51,  80,  314-323. 

Pruning,  59,  229,  238. 

Psychology,  knowledge  of  educational, 
essential  to  teacher  of  agriculture, 
363-364- 


Repairs,  farm,  282. 

Research  work  as  the  province  of  col- 
lege agricultural  study,  2-3. 

Road  construction,  study  of,  61,  266- 
267. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  on  the  depend- 
ence of  the  state  on  the  farmer,  13- 
14. 


Rotation-of-crops  demonstration  plots, 
144-145. 

Row,  R.  K.,  cited,  327. 

Rural  economics,  place  of,  in  high 
school  curriculum,  44,  45,  295 ;  use 
of  the  name,  267-272 ;  course  in, 
295  ff.  See  Farm  management. 

Rural  economy,  growing  realization  of 
importance  of,  295-296;  textbooks 
in,  297. 

Rural  engineering,  place  of,  in  curric- 
ulum, 45,  262-263;  topics  in- 
cluded under,  and  names  for,  263— 
265;  essential  subjects  in  course, 
266;  nomenclature  of  course,  267- 
272.  See  Farm  mechanics. 

Rural  schools,  introduction  of  agricul- 
ture in,  7. 

Rye,  excess  per  acre  abroad  in  pro- 
duction of,  over  United  States,  19. 


Salaries  of  teachers  of  agriculture,  373- 
374- 

School  farm,  for  practice  work,  79; 
equipment  of,  97-99;  demonstra- 
tion plots  on,  144-145  ;  general  pur- 
poses of,  312;  as  a  demonstration 
farm  for  the  community,  323;  em- 
ployment of,  as  an  experiment  sta- 
tion, 323-324;  the  educational 
rather  than  the  commercial  principle 
to  be  kept  in  view  on,  324-325; 
question  of  owning  or  renting,  326- 
327;  size  of,  3  2  7-3  31;  equi  pment 
for,  331-335;  care  of,  during  sum- 
mer vacation,  335-337;  division  of 
work  between  students  and  em- 
ployees, 337-341 ;  initial  cost  and 
expense  of  running,  341-343 ;  plans 
of  farms  at  California  high  schools, 
347-349;  representation  of  farms 
in  miniature  on,  349-351 ;  stress  to 
be  laid  on  educational  rather  than 
"show"  use  of,  351. 

School  farm  house,  334. 

School  gardens,  79,  144;  individual, 
in  horticultural  work,  233  ff. 

Science,  relation  of  agriculture  to,  in 


INDEX 


high  school  curricula,  36  ff. ;  inter- 
relation of  first-year  agricultural 
work  and  a  beginning  course  in, 
113  ff. ;  cooperation  of  teachers  of, 
in  securing  apparatus,  145-146; 
disappointing  work  of  teachers  of, 
as  teachers  of  agriculture,  354-355, 
350-360. 

Second-year  work,  animal  husbandry 
courses  in,  156 ;  dairy  course  in,  184. 

Seeds,  study  of,  127,  128. 

Sewage  disposal  system,  276,  284. 

Sheep.    See  Animal  husbandry. 

Shop,  model  farm,  280,  285-288. 

Shop  work,  270-282 ;  outline  of  course 
in,  308-309. 

Smith,  H.  R.,  outline  for  course  in 
animal  husbandry  by,  159. 

Smith  agricultural  school,  Northamp- 
ton, 7;  home  project  work  at,  321. 

Snedden,  David,  cited,  91. 

Soils,  place  of  study  of,  in  curriculum, 
50,  52,  54,  58,  59,  134,  135. 

Specimens,  exhibits  of,  in  connection 
with  club  work,  81-82. 

Spraying,  practice  in,  238. 

State  aid,  of  agricultural  high  schools, 
5-7;  of  vocational  courses  in  gen- 
eral, 90-91. 

Stimson,  R.  W.,  quoted,  322. 

Stock  judging,  175,  176. 

Superintendent  of   school  farm,   334, 

337,  339- 

Supplies,  laboratory,  97.  See  Equip- 
ment. 

Surveying,  275. 

Survey  work  by  teachers  in  rural  com- 
munities, 305-307. 


Teachers  of  high  school  agriculture, 
65  ff .,  353  ff • ;  qualifications  of,  353- 
357;  preparation  of,  for  the  work, 
357-358;  ability  of,  to  do  extension 
work,  358,  360-371 ;  weakness  of 
science  teachers  as,  350-360 ;  neces- 
sity of  broad  general  knowledge  in, 
360-361 ;  possession  of  professional 
knowledge  and  training  and  a  ground- 


ing in  social  and  pedagogical  princi- 
ples by,  362^  ff. ;  acquaintance  with 
teaching  methods,  365-366 ;  practice 
work  in  teaching  for,  366-368; 
desirable  personal  qualities  of,  368- 
369;  arrangement  of  vacations  for, 
371-372;  provision  in  colleges  for 
training  of,  372;  compensation  of, 

373-374- 

Teal,  Robert  J.,  outline  of  farm  me- 
chanics work  by,  308-309. 

Texas,  state  aid  of  high  schools  teach- 
ing agriculture,  etc.,  in,  93  n. 

Textbooks,  dearth  of  suitable,  for  high 
school  agriculture,  71-73;  special 
lack  of,  in  connection  with  laboratory 
exercises,  75-76;  suitable  for  first- 
year  work,  147-148;  for  animal 
husbandry  course,  161-163;  for 
dairy  work,  180-190;  for  poultry 
course,  210-211;  for  study  of  field 
crops,  226  n. ;  for  horticulture,  231 ; 
in  farm  mechanics,  276-277  ;  in  farm 
buildings,  278;  in  rural  economy, 
297. 

Third-year  work,  in  horticulture,  226; 
field  crops,  226-227. 

Tools,  study  of,  in  farm  mechanics, 
274,  288;  for  the  school  farm,  334- 

335- 

Tout,  H.  F.,  cited  on  labor  on  Bakers- 
field  school  farm,  349. 

Township  schools,  introduction  of 
agriculture  in,  7. 

Trees,  budding,  grafting,  pruning,  and 
planting,  59,  229,  232,  238. 

True,  A.  C.,  quoted,  12,  13,  93;  syl- 
labus of  course  in  agriculture  pre- 
pared by,  46-48. 

Tuberculosis,  practice  work  in  testing 
cattle  for,  192. 


Vacation,  care  of  school  farm  during, 

335-337- 
Vacations  of  teachers  of  agriculture, 

371-372. 
Vegetable  gardening,  study  of,  52,  53, 

227,    229-230;     practical   work   in, 


INDEX 


232 ;  outline  for  course  of  study  in, 
260-261. 

Virginia,  high  school  agricultural  in- 
struction in,  6;  state  aid  of  indus- 
trial courses  in  high  schools  in,  91  n. 

Viticulture,  study  of,  in  horticultural 
course,  229. 

Vocational  studies,  value  of,  to  public 
school  work,  25-26;  argument  for 
state  support  of,  90-91. 


W 


Water  supply,  study  of,  276,  284 ;  for 
the  school  farm,  332-333. 

Weeds,  study  of,  58. 

Western  State  Normal  School,  Kansas, 
course  in  agriculture  for  high  schools, 
62-63. 

Wheat,  excess  per  acre  abroad  in  pro- 
duction of,  over  United  States,  19. 


Window  gardens,  239. 

Winona  agricultural  college,  7. 

Wisconsin,  county  agricultural  high 
schools  in,  6 ;  state  aid  of  industrial 
and  agricultural  departments  in 
high  schools  in,  93  n. ;  outline  for 
animal  production  course  in,  158- 
159,  i?S;  outline  for  poultry  work, 
209. 

Wisconsin,  University  of,  high  school 
course  in  agriculture  in,  48-49. 


Yards  in  poultry  work,  216. 

Z 

Zoology,    place    of,    in    curriculum, 

So,  127. 
Zootechny.     See  Animal  husbandry. 


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